"The Climb" is a song performed by American recording artist and actress Miley Cyrus, for the 2009 film Hannah Montana: The Movie. The song was written by Jessi Alexander and Jon Mabe, and produced by John Shanks. It was released on March 5, 2009, as the lead single of the film's soundtrack by Walt Disney Records. The song is a power ballad with lyrics that describe life as a difficult but rewarding journey. It is styled as a country pop ballad, and was Cyrus' first solo song to be released to country radio. The instrumentation includes piano, guitar and violins.
"The Climb" was generally well received by critics and was nominated for the Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media at the 52nd Grammy Awards. However, the song was withdrawn from consideration by Walt Disney Records because it had not been written specifically for a movie as the category's eligibility rules required. The song achieved worldwide success and became a top ten hit on charts in Australia, Canada, Norway and the United States. In the United States, the song peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and became the eighth best selling digital single of 2009. Five months after its release, the single was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Since, it has been recognized as one of the best-selling singles in the United States.
The song's accompanying music video was directed by Matthew Rolston, and depicts scenes of Cyrus climbing a mountain or singing, intercut with clips of Hannah Montana: The Movie. Cyrus promoted the song with several live performances. The first, at the Kids Inaugural: "We Are the Future" event on January 19, 2009, was the first time the song had ever been publicly heard. Cyrus also performed the song as the closing number of her Wonder World Tour. The song is also a part of her Gypsy Heart Tour. "The Climb" has been covered by several artists and was the most popular choice of song among auditioners for the ninth season of the American singing contest, American Idol. Simon Cowell, creator of the British television talent show The X Factor, chose "The Climb" to be the debut single of the winner of the competition's sixth series. Winner Joe McElderry's cover, released on December 14, 2009 by Syco Music, was produced by Quiz & Larossi and topped the Irish Singles Chart and the UK Singles Chart.
Tuesday, 31 May 2011
How To Have Friends With Benefit
1
Choose a friend you would like to enter into this type of relationship with, one who understands your desire to not make a romantic commitment. It makes no sense to hone in on someone who is looking for a steady relationship.
2
Date more than one person. After all, the benefit to having a friends-with-benefits relationship is that you are not tied down to one person.
3
Communicate with the other person about the type of relationship you are looking for. Honesty is the best policy when dealing with a person's emotions.
4
Get to know people with similar interests. A friend with benefits does not necessarily have to be someone you already know; the person can be someone you are getting to know as well.
5
Practice safe sex. When you make the decision to be intimate with anyone, make sure that you protect yourself and others, too. Having sex with multiple partners is a personal choice, but it is also dangerous if you do not take proper precautions.
6
Respect everyone you become involved with. If at any time the other party decides they want to be in a steady relationship and you choose not to, do not lead them on. Give them enough respect to let them go and allow them to find someone willing to commit to them.
7
Choose the opposite of what you want in a potential mate in a friend with benefits. If you happen to find someone after entering the relationship who might be the one you are looking for, then it's time to change the friends-with-benefits relationship into a committed one or remove yourself from the situation altogether.
Read more: How to Have Friends With Benefits | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_2060582_have-friends-benefits.html#ixzz1NuxnQthx
Choose a friend you would like to enter into this type of relationship with, one who understands your desire to not make a romantic commitment. It makes no sense to hone in on someone who is looking for a steady relationship.
2
Date more than one person. After all, the benefit to having a friends-with-benefits relationship is that you are not tied down to one person.
3
Communicate with the other person about the type of relationship you are looking for. Honesty is the best policy when dealing with a person's emotions.
4
Get to know people with similar interests. A friend with benefits does not necessarily have to be someone you already know; the person can be someone you are getting to know as well.
5
Practice safe sex. When you make the decision to be intimate with anyone, make sure that you protect yourself and others, too. Having sex with multiple partners is a personal choice, but it is also dangerous if you do not take proper precautions.
6
Respect everyone you become involved with. If at any time the other party decides they want to be in a steady relationship and you choose not to, do not lead them on. Give them enough respect to let them go and allow them to find someone willing to commit to them.
7
Choose the opposite of what you want in a potential mate in a friend with benefits. If you happen to find someone after entering the relationship who might be the one you are looking for, then it's time to change the friends-with-benefits relationship into a committed one or remove yourself from the situation altogether.
Read more: How to Have Friends With Benefits | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_2060582_have-friends-benefits.html#ixzz1NuxnQthx
Monday, 30 May 2011
Idiom
A Bird In The Hand Is Worth Two In The Bush:
Having something that is certain is much better than taking a risk for more, because chances are you might lose everything.
A Blessing In Disguise:
Something good that isn't recognized at first.
A Chip On Your Shoulder:
Being upset for something that happened in the past.
A Dime A Dozen:
Anything that is common and easy to get.
A Doubting Thomas:
A skeptic who needs physical or personal evidence in order to believe something.
A Drop in the Bucket:
A very small part of something big or whole.
A Fool And His Money Are Easily Parted:
It's easy for a foolish person to lose his/her money.
A House Divided Against Itself Cannot Stand:
Everyone involved must unify and function together or it will not work out.
A Leopard Can't Change His Spots:
You cannot change who you are.
A Penny Saved Is A Penny Earned:
By not spending money, you are saving money (little by little).
A Picture Paints a Thousand Words:
A visual presentation is far more descriptive than words.
A Piece of Cake:
A task that can be accomplished very easily.
A Slap on the Wrist:
A very mild punishment.
A Taste Of Your Own Medicine:
When you are mistreated the same way you mistreat others.
A Toss-Up:
A result that is still unclear and can go either way.
Actions Speak Louder Than Words:
It's better to actually do something than just talk about it.
Add Fuel To The Fire:
Whenever something is done to make a bad situation even worse than it is.
Against The Clock:
Rushed and short on time.
All Bark And No Bite:
When someone is threatening and/or aggressive but not willing to engage in a fight.
All Greek to me:
Meaningless and incomprehensible like someone who cannot read, speak, or understand any of the Greek language would be.
All In The Same Boat:
When everyone is facing the same challenges.
An Arm And A Leg:
Very expensive. A large amount of money.
An Axe To Grind:
To have a dispute with someone.
Apple of My Eye:
Someone who is cherished above all others.
As High As A Kite:
Anything that is high up in the sky.
At The Drop Of A Hat:
Willing to do something immediately.
B
Back Seat Driver:
People who criticize from the sidelines, much like someone giving unwanted advice from the back seat of a vehicle to the driver.
Back To Square One:
Having to start all over again.
Back To The Drawing Board:
When an attempt fails and it's time to start all over.
Baker's Dozen:
Thirteen.
Barking Up The Wrong Tree:
A mistake made in something you are trying to achieve.
Beat A Dead Horse:
To force an issue that has already ended.
Beating Around The Bush:
Avoiding the main topic. Not speaking directly about the issue.
Bend Over Backwards:
Do whatever it takes to help. Willing to do anything.
Between A Rock And A Hard Place:
Stuck between two very bad options.
Bite Off More Than You Can Chew:
To take on a task that is way to big.
Bite Your Tongue:
To avoid talking.
Blood Is Thicker Than Water:
The family bond is closer than anything else.
Blue Moon:
A rare event or occurance.
Break A Leg:
A superstitious way to say 'good luck' without saying 'good luck', but rather the opposite.
Buy A Lemon:
To purchase a vehicle that constantly gives problems or stops running after you drive it away.
C
Can't Cut The Mustard :
Someone who isn't adequate enough to compete or participate.
Cast Iron Stomach:
Someone who has no problems, complications or ill effects with eating anything or drinking anything.
Charley Horse:
Stiffness in the leg / A leg cramp.
Chew someone out:
Verbally scold someone.
Chip on his Shoulder:
Angry today about something that occured in the past.
Chow Down:
To eat.
Close but no Cigar:
To be very near and almost accomplish a goal, but fall short.
Cock and Bull Story:
An unbelievable tale.
Come Hell Or High Water:
Any difficult situation or obstacle.
Crack Someone Up:
To make someone laugh.
Cross Your Fingers:
To hope that something happens the way you want it to.
Cry Over Spilt Milk:
When you complain about a loss from the past.
Cry Wolf:
Intentionally raise a false alarm.
Cup Of Joe:
A cup of coffee.
Curiosity Killed The Cat:
Being Inquisitive can lead you into a dangerous situation.
Cut to the Chase:
Leave out all the unnecessary details and just get to the point.
D
Dark Horse:
One who was previously unknown and is now prominent.
Dead Ringer:
100% identical. A duplicate.
Devil's Advocate:
Someone who takes a position for the sake of argument without believing in that particular side of the arguement. It can also mean one who presents a counter argument for a position they do believe in, to another debater.
Dog Days of Summer:
The hottest days of the summer season.
Don't count your chickens before they hatch:
Don't rely on it until your sure of it.
Don't Look A Gift Horse In The Mouth:
When someone gives you a gift, don't be ungrateful.
Don't Put All Your Eggs In One Basket:
Do not put all your resources in one possibility.
Doozy:
Something outstanding.
Down To The Wire:
Something that ends at the last minute or last few seconds.
Drastic Times Call For Drastic Measures:
When you are extremely desperate you need to take extremely desperate actions.
Drink like a fish:
To drink very heavily.
Drive someone up the wall:
To irritate and/or annoy very much.
Dropping Like Flies:
A large number of people either falling ill or dying.
Dry Run:
Rehearsal.
E
Eighty Six:
A certain item is no longer available. Or this idiom can also mean, to throw away.
Elvis has left the building:
The show has come to an end. It's all over.
Ethnic Cleansing:
Killing of a certain ethnic or religious group on a massive scale.
Every Cloud Has A Silver Lining:
Be optomistic, even difficult times will lead to better days.
Everything But The Kitchen Sink:
Almost everything and anything has been included.
Excuse my French:
Please forgive me for cussing.
Cock and Bull Story:
An unbelievable tale.
Cock and Bull Story:
An unbelievable tale.
F
Feeding Frenzy:
An aggressive attack on someone by a group.
Field Day:
An enjoyable day or circumstance.
Finding Your Feet:
To become more comfortable in whatever you are doing.
Finger lickin' good:
A very tasty food or meal.
Fixed In Your Ways:
Not willing or wanting to change from your normal way of doing something.
Flash In The Pan:
Something that shows potential or looks promising in the beginning but fails to deliver anything in the end.
Flea Market:
A swap meet. A place where people gather to buy and sell inexpensive goods.
Flesh and Blood:
This idiom can mean living material of which people are made of, or it can refer to someone's family.
Flip The Bird:
To raise your middle finger at someone.
Foam at the Mouth:
To be enraged and show it.
Fools' Gold:
Iron pyrites, a worthless rock that resembles real gold.
French Kiss:
An open mouth kiss where tongues touch.
From Rags To Riches:
To go from being very poor to being very wealthy.
Fuddy-duddy:
An old-fashioned and foolish type of person.
Full Monty:
This idiom can mean either, "the whole thing" or "completely nude".
Funny Farm:
A mental institutional facility.
G
Get Down to Brass Tacks:
To become serious about something.
Get Over It:
To move beyond something that is bothering you.
Get Up On The Wrong Side Of The Bed:
Someone who is having a horrible day.
Get Your Walking Papers:
Get fired from a job.
Give Him The Slip:
To get away from. To escape.
Go Down Like A Lead Balloon:
To be received badly by an audience.
Go For Broke:
To gamble everything you have.
Go Out On A Limb:
Put yourself in a tough position in order to support someone/something.
Go The Extra Mile:
Going above and beyond whatever is required for the task at hand.
Good Samaritan:
Someone who helps others when they are in need, with no discussion for compensation, and no thought of a reward.
Graveyard Shift:
Working hours from about 12:00 am to 8:00 am. The time of the day when most other people are sleeping.
Great Minds Think Alike:
Intelligent people think like each other.
Green Room:
The waiting room, especially for those who are about to go on a tv or radio show.
Gut Feeling:
A personal intuition you get, especially when feel something may not be right.
H
Haste Makes Waste:
Quickly doing things results in a poor ending.
Hat Trick:
When one player scores three goals in the same hockey game. This idiom can also mean three scores in any other sport, such as 3 homeruns, 3 touchdowns, 3 soccer goals, etc.
Have an Axe to Grind:
To have a dispute with someone.
He Lost His Head:
Angry and overcome by emotions.
Head Over Heels:
Very excited and/or joyful, especially when in love.
Hell in a Handbasket:
Deteriorating and headed for complete disaster.
High Five:
Slapping palms above each others heads as celebration gesture.
High on the Hog:
Living in Luxury.
Hit The Books:
To study, especially for a test or exam.
Hit The Hay:
Go to bed or go to sleep.
Hit The Nail on the Head:
Do something exactly right or say something exactly right.
Hit The Sack:
Go to bed or go to sleep.
Hocus Pocus:
In general, a term used in magic or trickery.
Hold Your Horses:
Be patient.
I
Icing On The Cake:
When you already have it good and get something on top of what you already have.
Idle Hands Are The Devil's Tools:
You are more likely to get in trouble if you have nothing to do.
If It's Not One Thing, It's Another:
When one thing goes wrong, then another, and another...
In Like Flynn:
To be easily successful, especially when sexual or romantic.
In The Bag:
To have something secured.
In The Buff:
Nude.
In The Heat Of The Moment:
Overwhelmed by what is happening in the moment.
In Your Face:
An aggressive and bold confrontation.
It Takes Two To Tango:
A two person conflict where both people are at fault.
It's A Small World:
You frequently see the same people in different places.
Its Anyone's Call:
A competition where the outcome is difficult to judge or predict.
Ivy League:
Since 1954 the Ivy League has been the following universities: Columbia, Brown, Cornell, Dartmouth, Yale, Pennsylvania, Princeton, and Harvard.
J
Jaywalk:
Crossing the street (from the middle) without using the crosswalk.
Joshing Me:
Tricking me.
K
Keep An Eye On Him:
You should carefully watch him.
Keep body and soul together:
To earn a sufficient amount of money in order to keep yourself alive .
Keep your chin up:
To remain joyful in a tough situation.
Kick The Bucket:
Die.
Kitty-corner:
Diagonally across. Sometimes called Catty-Corner as well.
Knee Jerk Reaction:
A quick and automatic response.
Knock On Wood:
Knuckle tapping on wood in order to avoid some bad luck.
Know the Ropes:
To understand the details.
L
Last but not least:
An introduction phrase to let the audience know that the last person mentioned is no less important than those introduced before him/her.
Lend Me Your Ear:
To politely ask for someone's full attention.
Let Bygones Be Bygones:
To forget about a disagreement or arguement.
Let Sleeping Dogs Lie:
To avoid restarting a conflict.
Let The Cat Out Of The Bag:
To share a secret that wasn't suppose to be shared.
Level playing field:
A fair competition where no side has an advantage.
Like a chicken with its head cut off:
To act in a frenzied manner.
liquor someone up:
To get someone drunk.
Long in the Tooth:
Old people (or horses).
Loose Cannon:
Someone who is unpredictable and can cause damage if not kept in check.
M
Make No Bones About:
To state a fact so there are no doubts or objections.
Method To My Madness:
Strange or crazy actions that appear meaningless but in the end are done for a good reason.
Mumbo Jumbo:
Nonsense or meaningless speech.
Mum's the word:
To keep quiet. To say nothing.
N
Nest Egg:
Savings set aside for future use.
Never Bite The Hand That Feeds You:
Don't hurt anyone that helps you.
New kid on the block:
Someone new to the group or area.
New York Minute:
A minute that seems to go by quickly, especially in a fast paced environment.
No Dice:
To not agree. To not accept a proposition.
No Room to Swing a Cat:
An unsually small or confined space.
Not Playing With a Full Deck:
Someone who lacks intelligence.
O
Off On The Wrong Foot:
Getting a bad start on a relationship or task.
Off The Hook:
No longer have to deal with a tough situation.
Off the Record:
Something said in confidence that the one speaking doesn't want attributed to him/her.
On Pins And Needles:
Anxious or nervous, especially in anticipation of something.
On The Fence:
Undecided.
On The Same Page:
When multiple people all agree on the same thing.
Out Of The Blue:
Something that suddenly and unexpectedly occurs.
Out On A Limb:
When someone puts themself in a risky situation.
Out On The Town:
To enjoy yourself by going out.
Over My Dead Body:
When you absolutely will not allow something to happen.
Over the Top:
Very excessive.
P
Pass The Buck:
Avoid responsibility by giving it to someone else.
Pedal to the metal:
To go full speed, especially while driving a vehicle.
Peeping Tom:
Someone who observes people in the nude or sexually active people, mainly for his own gratification.
Pick up your ears:
To listen very carefully.
Pig In A Poke:
A deal that is made without first examining it.
Pig Out :
To eat alot and eat it quickly.
Pipe Down:
To shut-up or be quiet.
Practice Makes Perfect:
By constantly practicing, you will become better.
Pull the plug:
To stop something. To bring something to an end.
Pulling Your Leg:
Tricking someone as a joke.
Put a sock in it:
To tell noisy person or a group to be quiet.
Q
Queer the pitch:
Destroy or ruin a plan.
R
Raincheck:
An offer or deal that is declined right now but willing to accept later.
Raining Cats and Dogs:
A very loud and noisy rain storm.
Ring Fencing:
Seperated usual judgement to guarantee protection, especially project funds.
Rise and Shine:
Time to get out of bed and get ready for work/school.
Rome Was Not Built In One Day:
If you want something to be completely properly, then its going to take time.
Rule Of Thumb:
A rough estimate.
Run out of steam:
To be completely out of energy.
S
Saved By The Bell:
Saved at the last possible moment.
Scapegoat:
Someone else who takes the blame.
Scot-free:
To escape and not have to pay.
Sick As A Dog:
To be very sick (with the flu or a cold).
Sitting Shotgun:
Riding in the front passenger seat of a car.
Sixth Sense:
A paranormal sense that allows you to communicate with the dead.
Skid Row:
The rundown area of a city where the homeless and drug users live.
Smell A Rat:
To detect somone in the group is betraying the others.
Smell Something Fishy:
Detecting that something isn't right and there might be a reason for it.
Son of a Gun:
A scamp.
Southpaw:
Someone who is left-handed.
Spitting Image:
The exact likeness or kind.
Start From Scratch:
To do it all over again from the beginning.
T
The Ball Is In Your Court:
It is your decision this time.
The Best Of Both Worlds:
There are two choices and you have them both.
The Bigger They Are The Harder They Fall:
While the bigger and stronger opponent might be alot more difficult to beat, when you do they suffer a much bigger loss.
The Last Straw:
When one small burden after another creates an unbearable situation, the last straw is the last small burden that one can take.
The Whole Nine Yards:
Everything. All of it.
Third times a charm:
After no success the first two times, the third try is a lucky one.
Tie the knot:
To get married.
Til the cows come home:
A long time.
To Make A Long Story Short:
Something someone would say during a long and boring story in order to keep his/her audience from losing attention. Usually the story isn't shortened.
To Steal Someone's Thunder:
To take the credit for something someone else did.
Tongue And Cheek:
humor, not to be taken serious.
Turn A Blind Eye:
Refuse to acknowledge something you know is real or legit.
Twenty three skidoo:
To be turned away.
U
Under the weather:
Feeling ill or sick.
Up a blind alley:
Going down a course of action that leads to a bad outcome.
Use Your Loaf:
Use your head. Think smart.
V
Van Gogh's ear for music:
Tone deaf.
Variety Is The Spice Of Life:
The more experiences you try the more exciting life can be.
W
Wag the Dog:
A diversion away from something of greater importance.
Water Under The Bridge:
Anything from the past that isn't significant or important anymore.
Wear Your Heart On Your Sleeve:
To openly and freely express your emotions.
When It Rains, It Pours:
Since it rarely rains, when it does it will be a huge storm.
When Pigs Fly :
Something that will never ever happen.
Wild and Woolly:
Uncultured and without laws.
Wine and Dine:
When somebody is treated to an expensive meal.
Without A Doubt:
For certain.
X
X marks the spot:
A phrase that is said when someone finds something he/she has been looking for.
Y
You Are What You Eat:
In order to stay healthy you must eat healthy foods.
You Can't Judge A Book By Its Cover:
Decisions shouldn't be made primarily on appearance.
You Can't Take it With You:
Enjoy what you have and not what you don't have, since when you die you cannot take things (such as money) with you.
Your Guess Is As Good As Mine:
I have no idea.
Z
Zero Tolerance:
No crime or law breaking big or small will be overlooked.
Having something that is certain is much better than taking a risk for more, because chances are you might lose everything.
A Blessing In Disguise:
Something good that isn't recognized at first.
A Chip On Your Shoulder:
Being upset for something that happened in the past.
A Dime A Dozen:
Anything that is common and easy to get.
A Doubting Thomas:
A skeptic who needs physical or personal evidence in order to believe something.
A Drop in the Bucket:
A very small part of something big or whole.
A Fool And His Money Are Easily Parted:
It's easy for a foolish person to lose his/her money.
A House Divided Against Itself Cannot Stand:
Everyone involved must unify and function together or it will not work out.
A Leopard Can't Change His Spots:
You cannot change who you are.
A Penny Saved Is A Penny Earned:
By not spending money, you are saving money (little by little).
A Picture Paints a Thousand Words:
A visual presentation is far more descriptive than words.
A Piece of Cake:
A task that can be accomplished very easily.
A Slap on the Wrist:
A very mild punishment.
A Taste Of Your Own Medicine:
When you are mistreated the same way you mistreat others.
A Toss-Up:
A result that is still unclear and can go either way.
Actions Speak Louder Than Words:
It's better to actually do something than just talk about it.
Add Fuel To The Fire:
Whenever something is done to make a bad situation even worse than it is.
Against The Clock:
Rushed and short on time.
All Bark And No Bite:
When someone is threatening and/or aggressive but not willing to engage in a fight.
All Greek to me:
Meaningless and incomprehensible like someone who cannot read, speak, or understand any of the Greek language would be.
All In The Same Boat:
When everyone is facing the same challenges.
An Arm And A Leg:
Very expensive. A large amount of money.
An Axe To Grind:
To have a dispute with someone.
Apple of My Eye:
Someone who is cherished above all others.
As High As A Kite:
Anything that is high up in the sky.
At The Drop Of A Hat:
Willing to do something immediately.
B
Back Seat Driver:
People who criticize from the sidelines, much like someone giving unwanted advice from the back seat of a vehicle to the driver.
Back To Square One:
Having to start all over again.
Back To The Drawing Board:
When an attempt fails and it's time to start all over.
Baker's Dozen:
Thirteen.
Barking Up The Wrong Tree:
A mistake made in something you are trying to achieve.
Beat A Dead Horse:
To force an issue that has already ended.
Beating Around The Bush:
Avoiding the main topic. Not speaking directly about the issue.
Bend Over Backwards:
Do whatever it takes to help. Willing to do anything.
Between A Rock And A Hard Place:
Stuck between two very bad options.
Bite Off More Than You Can Chew:
To take on a task that is way to big.
Bite Your Tongue:
To avoid talking.
Blood Is Thicker Than Water:
The family bond is closer than anything else.
Blue Moon:
A rare event or occurance.
Break A Leg:
A superstitious way to say 'good luck' without saying 'good luck', but rather the opposite.
Buy A Lemon:
To purchase a vehicle that constantly gives problems or stops running after you drive it away.
C
Can't Cut The Mustard :
Someone who isn't adequate enough to compete or participate.
Cast Iron Stomach:
Someone who has no problems, complications or ill effects with eating anything or drinking anything.
Charley Horse:
Stiffness in the leg / A leg cramp.
Chew someone out:
Verbally scold someone.
Chip on his Shoulder:
Angry today about something that occured in the past.
Chow Down:
To eat.
Close but no Cigar:
To be very near and almost accomplish a goal, but fall short.
Cock and Bull Story:
An unbelievable tale.
Come Hell Or High Water:
Any difficult situation or obstacle.
Crack Someone Up:
To make someone laugh.
Cross Your Fingers:
To hope that something happens the way you want it to.
Cry Over Spilt Milk:
When you complain about a loss from the past.
Cry Wolf:
Intentionally raise a false alarm.
Cup Of Joe:
A cup of coffee.
Curiosity Killed The Cat:
Being Inquisitive can lead you into a dangerous situation.
Cut to the Chase:
Leave out all the unnecessary details and just get to the point.
D
Dark Horse:
One who was previously unknown and is now prominent.
Dead Ringer:
100% identical. A duplicate.
Devil's Advocate:
Someone who takes a position for the sake of argument without believing in that particular side of the arguement. It can also mean one who presents a counter argument for a position they do believe in, to another debater.
Dog Days of Summer:
The hottest days of the summer season.
Don't count your chickens before they hatch:
Don't rely on it until your sure of it.
Don't Look A Gift Horse In The Mouth:
When someone gives you a gift, don't be ungrateful.
Don't Put All Your Eggs In One Basket:
Do not put all your resources in one possibility.
Doozy:
Something outstanding.
Down To The Wire:
Something that ends at the last minute or last few seconds.
Drastic Times Call For Drastic Measures:
When you are extremely desperate you need to take extremely desperate actions.
Drink like a fish:
To drink very heavily.
Drive someone up the wall:
To irritate and/or annoy very much.
Dropping Like Flies:
A large number of people either falling ill or dying.
Dry Run:
Rehearsal.
E
Eighty Six:
A certain item is no longer available. Or this idiom can also mean, to throw away.
Elvis has left the building:
The show has come to an end. It's all over.
Ethnic Cleansing:
Killing of a certain ethnic or religious group on a massive scale.
Every Cloud Has A Silver Lining:
Be optomistic, even difficult times will lead to better days.
Everything But The Kitchen Sink:
Almost everything and anything has been included.
Excuse my French:
Please forgive me for cussing.
Cock and Bull Story:
An unbelievable tale.
Cock and Bull Story:
An unbelievable tale.
F
Feeding Frenzy:
An aggressive attack on someone by a group.
Field Day:
An enjoyable day or circumstance.
Finding Your Feet:
To become more comfortable in whatever you are doing.
Finger lickin' good:
A very tasty food or meal.
Fixed In Your Ways:
Not willing or wanting to change from your normal way of doing something.
Flash In The Pan:
Something that shows potential or looks promising in the beginning but fails to deliver anything in the end.
Flea Market:
A swap meet. A place where people gather to buy and sell inexpensive goods.
Flesh and Blood:
This idiom can mean living material of which people are made of, or it can refer to someone's family.
Flip The Bird:
To raise your middle finger at someone.
Foam at the Mouth:
To be enraged and show it.
Fools' Gold:
Iron pyrites, a worthless rock that resembles real gold.
French Kiss:
An open mouth kiss where tongues touch.
From Rags To Riches:
To go from being very poor to being very wealthy.
Fuddy-duddy:
An old-fashioned and foolish type of person.
Full Monty:
This idiom can mean either, "the whole thing" or "completely nude".
Funny Farm:
A mental institutional facility.
G
Get Down to Brass Tacks:
To become serious about something.
Get Over It:
To move beyond something that is bothering you.
Get Up On The Wrong Side Of The Bed:
Someone who is having a horrible day.
Get Your Walking Papers:
Get fired from a job.
Give Him The Slip:
To get away from. To escape.
Go Down Like A Lead Balloon:
To be received badly by an audience.
Go For Broke:
To gamble everything you have.
Go Out On A Limb:
Put yourself in a tough position in order to support someone/something.
Go The Extra Mile:
Going above and beyond whatever is required for the task at hand.
Good Samaritan:
Someone who helps others when they are in need, with no discussion for compensation, and no thought of a reward.
Graveyard Shift:
Working hours from about 12:00 am to 8:00 am. The time of the day when most other people are sleeping.
Great Minds Think Alike:
Intelligent people think like each other.
Green Room:
The waiting room, especially for those who are about to go on a tv or radio show.
Gut Feeling:
A personal intuition you get, especially when feel something may not be right.
H
Haste Makes Waste:
Quickly doing things results in a poor ending.
Hat Trick:
When one player scores three goals in the same hockey game. This idiom can also mean three scores in any other sport, such as 3 homeruns, 3 touchdowns, 3 soccer goals, etc.
Have an Axe to Grind:
To have a dispute with someone.
He Lost His Head:
Angry and overcome by emotions.
Head Over Heels:
Very excited and/or joyful, especially when in love.
Hell in a Handbasket:
Deteriorating and headed for complete disaster.
High Five:
Slapping palms above each others heads as celebration gesture.
High on the Hog:
Living in Luxury.
Hit The Books:
To study, especially for a test or exam.
Hit The Hay:
Go to bed or go to sleep.
Hit The Nail on the Head:
Do something exactly right or say something exactly right.
Hit The Sack:
Go to bed or go to sleep.
Hocus Pocus:
In general, a term used in magic or trickery.
Hold Your Horses:
Be patient.
I
Icing On The Cake:
When you already have it good and get something on top of what you already have.
Idle Hands Are The Devil's Tools:
You are more likely to get in trouble if you have nothing to do.
If It's Not One Thing, It's Another:
When one thing goes wrong, then another, and another...
In Like Flynn:
To be easily successful, especially when sexual or romantic.
In The Bag:
To have something secured.
In The Buff:
Nude.
In The Heat Of The Moment:
Overwhelmed by what is happening in the moment.
In Your Face:
An aggressive and bold confrontation.
It Takes Two To Tango:
A two person conflict where both people are at fault.
It's A Small World:
You frequently see the same people in different places.
Its Anyone's Call:
A competition where the outcome is difficult to judge or predict.
Ivy League:
Since 1954 the Ivy League has been the following universities: Columbia, Brown, Cornell, Dartmouth, Yale, Pennsylvania, Princeton, and Harvard.
J
Jaywalk:
Crossing the street (from the middle) without using the crosswalk.
Joshing Me:
Tricking me.
K
Keep An Eye On Him:
You should carefully watch him.
Keep body and soul together:
To earn a sufficient amount of money in order to keep yourself alive .
Keep your chin up:
To remain joyful in a tough situation.
Kick The Bucket:
Die.
Kitty-corner:
Diagonally across. Sometimes called Catty-Corner as well.
Knee Jerk Reaction:
A quick and automatic response.
Knock On Wood:
Knuckle tapping on wood in order to avoid some bad luck.
Know the Ropes:
To understand the details.
L
Last but not least:
An introduction phrase to let the audience know that the last person mentioned is no less important than those introduced before him/her.
Lend Me Your Ear:
To politely ask for someone's full attention.
Let Bygones Be Bygones:
To forget about a disagreement or arguement.
Let Sleeping Dogs Lie:
To avoid restarting a conflict.
Let The Cat Out Of The Bag:
To share a secret that wasn't suppose to be shared.
Level playing field:
A fair competition where no side has an advantage.
Like a chicken with its head cut off:
To act in a frenzied manner.
liquor someone up:
To get someone drunk.
Long in the Tooth:
Old people (or horses).
Loose Cannon:
Someone who is unpredictable and can cause damage if not kept in check.
M
Make No Bones About:
To state a fact so there are no doubts or objections.
Method To My Madness:
Strange or crazy actions that appear meaningless but in the end are done for a good reason.
Mumbo Jumbo:
Nonsense or meaningless speech.
Mum's the word:
To keep quiet. To say nothing.
N
Nest Egg:
Savings set aside for future use.
Never Bite The Hand That Feeds You:
Don't hurt anyone that helps you.
New kid on the block:
Someone new to the group or area.
New York Minute:
A minute that seems to go by quickly, especially in a fast paced environment.
No Dice:
To not agree. To not accept a proposition.
No Room to Swing a Cat:
An unsually small or confined space.
Not Playing With a Full Deck:
Someone who lacks intelligence.
O
Off On The Wrong Foot:
Getting a bad start on a relationship or task.
Off The Hook:
No longer have to deal with a tough situation.
Off the Record:
Something said in confidence that the one speaking doesn't want attributed to him/her.
On Pins And Needles:
Anxious or nervous, especially in anticipation of something.
On The Fence:
Undecided.
On The Same Page:
When multiple people all agree on the same thing.
Out Of The Blue:
Something that suddenly and unexpectedly occurs.
Out On A Limb:
When someone puts themself in a risky situation.
Out On The Town:
To enjoy yourself by going out.
Over My Dead Body:
When you absolutely will not allow something to happen.
Over the Top:
Very excessive.
P
Pass The Buck:
Avoid responsibility by giving it to someone else.
Pedal to the metal:
To go full speed, especially while driving a vehicle.
Peeping Tom:
Someone who observes people in the nude or sexually active people, mainly for his own gratification.
Pick up your ears:
To listen very carefully.
Pig In A Poke:
A deal that is made without first examining it.
Pig Out :
To eat alot and eat it quickly.
Pipe Down:
To shut-up or be quiet.
Practice Makes Perfect:
By constantly practicing, you will become better.
Pull the plug:
To stop something. To bring something to an end.
Pulling Your Leg:
Tricking someone as a joke.
Put a sock in it:
To tell noisy person or a group to be quiet.
Q
Queer the pitch:
Destroy or ruin a plan.
R
Raincheck:
An offer or deal that is declined right now but willing to accept later.
Raining Cats and Dogs:
A very loud and noisy rain storm.
Ring Fencing:
Seperated usual judgement to guarantee protection, especially project funds.
Rise and Shine:
Time to get out of bed and get ready for work/school.
Rome Was Not Built In One Day:
If you want something to be completely properly, then its going to take time.
Rule Of Thumb:
A rough estimate.
Run out of steam:
To be completely out of energy.
S
Saved By The Bell:
Saved at the last possible moment.
Scapegoat:
Someone else who takes the blame.
Scot-free:
To escape and not have to pay.
Sick As A Dog:
To be very sick (with the flu or a cold).
Sitting Shotgun:
Riding in the front passenger seat of a car.
Sixth Sense:
A paranormal sense that allows you to communicate with the dead.
Skid Row:
The rundown area of a city where the homeless and drug users live.
Smell A Rat:
To detect somone in the group is betraying the others.
Smell Something Fishy:
Detecting that something isn't right and there might be a reason for it.
Son of a Gun:
A scamp.
Southpaw:
Someone who is left-handed.
Spitting Image:
The exact likeness or kind.
Start From Scratch:
To do it all over again from the beginning.
T
The Ball Is In Your Court:
It is your decision this time.
The Best Of Both Worlds:
There are two choices and you have them both.
The Bigger They Are The Harder They Fall:
While the bigger and stronger opponent might be alot more difficult to beat, when you do they suffer a much bigger loss.
The Last Straw:
When one small burden after another creates an unbearable situation, the last straw is the last small burden that one can take.
The Whole Nine Yards:
Everything. All of it.
Third times a charm:
After no success the first two times, the third try is a lucky one.
Tie the knot:
To get married.
Til the cows come home:
A long time.
To Make A Long Story Short:
Something someone would say during a long and boring story in order to keep his/her audience from losing attention. Usually the story isn't shortened.
To Steal Someone's Thunder:
To take the credit for something someone else did.
Tongue And Cheek:
humor, not to be taken serious.
Turn A Blind Eye:
Refuse to acknowledge something you know is real or legit.
Twenty three skidoo:
To be turned away.
U
Under the weather:
Feeling ill or sick.
Up a blind alley:
Going down a course of action that leads to a bad outcome.
Use Your Loaf:
Use your head. Think smart.
V
Van Gogh's ear for music:
Tone deaf.
Variety Is The Spice Of Life:
The more experiences you try the more exciting life can be.
W
Wag the Dog:
A diversion away from something of greater importance.
Water Under The Bridge:
Anything from the past that isn't significant or important anymore.
Wear Your Heart On Your Sleeve:
To openly and freely express your emotions.
When It Rains, It Pours:
Since it rarely rains, when it does it will be a huge storm.
When Pigs Fly :
Something that will never ever happen.
Wild and Woolly:
Uncultured and without laws.
Wine and Dine:
When somebody is treated to an expensive meal.
Without A Doubt:
For certain.
X
X marks the spot:
A phrase that is said when someone finds something he/she has been looking for.
Y
You Are What You Eat:
In order to stay healthy you must eat healthy foods.
You Can't Judge A Book By Its Cover:
Decisions shouldn't be made primarily on appearance.
You Can't Take it With You:
Enjoy what you have and not what you don't have, since when you die you cannot take things (such as money) with you.
Your Guess Is As Good As Mine:
I have no idea.
Z
Zero Tolerance:
No crime or law breaking big or small will be overlooked.
HONDA
From a young age, Honda's founder, Soichiro Honda (本田 宗一郎, Honda Sōichirō) had a great interest in automobiles. He worked as a mechanic at a Japanese tuning shop, Art Shokai, where he tuned cars and entered them in races. A self-taught engineer, he later worked on a piston design which he hoped to sell to Toyota. The first drafts of his design were rejected, and Soichiro worked painstakingly to perfect the design, even going back to school and pawning his wife's jewelry for collateral. Eventually, he won a contract with Toyota and built a factory to construct pistons for them, which was destroyed in an earthquake. Due to a gasoline shortage during World War II, Honda was unable to use his car, and his novel idea of attaching a small engine to his bicycle attracted much curiosity. He then established the Honda Technical Research Institute in Hamamatsu, Japan, to develop and produce small 2-cycle motorbike engines. Calling upon 18,000 bicycle shop owners across Japan to take part in revitalizing a nation torn apart by war, Soichiro received enough capital to engineer his first motorcycle, the Honda Cub. This marked the beginning of Honda Motor Company, which would grow a short time later to be the world's largest manufacturer of motorcycles by 1964.
The first production automobile from Honda was the T360 mini pick-up truck, which went on sale in August 1963.[10] Powered by a small 356 cc straight-4 gasoline engine, it was classified under the cheaper Kei car tax bracket.[citation needed] The first production car from Honda was the S500 sports car, which followed the T360 into production in October 1963. Its chain driven rear wheels point to Honda's motorcycle origins.
The first production automobile from Honda was the T360 mini pick-up truck, which went on sale in August 1963.[10] Powered by a small 356 cc straight-4 gasoline engine, it was classified under the cheaper Kei car tax bracket.[citation needed] The first production car from Honda was the S500 sports car, which followed the T360 into production in October 1963. Its chain driven rear wheels point to Honda's motorcycle origins.
Carnivore
carnivore ( /ˈkɑrnɪvɔər/), meaning 'meat eater' (Latin carne meaning 'flesh' and vorare meaning 'to devour'), is an organism that derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of animal tissue, whether through predation or scavenging.[1][2] Animals that depend solely on animal flesh for their nutrient requirements are considered obligate carnivores while those that also consume non-animal food are considered facultative carnivores.[2] Omnivores also consume both animal and non-animal food, and apart from the more general definition, there is no clearly defined ratio of plant to animal material that would distinguish a facultative carnivore from an omnivore, or an omnivore from a facultative herbivore, for that matter.[3] A carnivore that sits at the top of the foodchain is an apex predator.
Plants that capture and digest insects are called carnivorous plants. Similarly, fungi that capture microscopic animals are often called carnivorous fungi.
Plants that capture and digest insects are called carnivorous plants. Similarly, fungi that capture microscopic animals are often called carnivorous fungi.
Herbivores
Herbivores are organisms that eat plants. Herbivory is a form of consumption in which an organism principally eats autotrophs[1][page needed] such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. More generally, organisms that feed on autotrophs in general are known as primary consumers. Comes from the Greek suffix "vora" (Greek -βόρα) meaning "which eat".
By strict interpretation of this definition, many fungi, some bacteria, many animals, some protists and a small number of parasitic plants might be considered herbivores. However, herbivory generally refers to animals eating plants. Fungi, bacteria and protists that feed on living plants are usually termed plant pathogens (plant diseases). Microbes that feed on dead plants are saprotrophs. Flowering plants that obtain nutrition from other living plants are usually termed parasitic plants.
By strict interpretation of this definition, many fungi, some bacteria, many animals, some protists and a small number of parasitic plants might be considered herbivores. However, herbivory generally refers to animals eating plants. Fungi, bacteria and protists that feed on living plants are usually termed plant pathogens (plant diseases). Microbes that feed on dead plants are saprotrophs. Flowering plants that obtain nutrition from other living plants are usually termed parasitic plants.
Sunday, 29 May 2011
I Wonder
I wonder why the grass is green,
And why the wind is never seen?
Who taught the birds to build a nest,
And told the trees to take a rest?
Oh, when the moon is not quite round,
Where can the missing bit be found?
Who lights the stars, when they blow out,
And makes the lightning flash about?
Who paints the rainbow in the sky,
And hangs the fluffy clouds so high?
Why to this
And why to that.
And why do we
Wear flowered underpants?
So many questions, so little time
And why the wind is never seen?
Who taught the birds to build a nest,
And told the trees to take a rest?
Oh, when the moon is not quite round,
Where can the missing bit be found?
Who lights the stars, when they blow out,
And makes the lightning flash about?
Who paints the rainbow in the sky,
And hangs the fluffy clouds so high?
Why to this
And why to that.
And why do we
Wear flowered underpants?
So many questions, so little time
Figurative Expression
the apple of one`s eye-a favoured person
a one`s fingertips-to know very well
at the eleventh hour-at the last moment
bad egg-worthless person
bell the cat-to do something dangerous
come to the point-speak directly
keep in mind-to remember
like cat and dog-disagree strongly and often
a one`s fingertips-to know very well
at the eleventh hour-at the last moment
bad egg-worthless person
bell the cat-to do something dangerous
come to the point-speak directly
keep in mind-to remember
like cat and dog-disagree strongly and often
Taylor Swift
At age 11, Swift made her first trip to Nashville, hoping to obtain a record deal by distributing a demo tape of her singing with karaoke songs. She gave a copy to every label in town,[29] but was rejected.[30] After Swift returned to Pennsylvania, she was asked to sing at the U.S. Open tennis tournament, where her rendition of the national anthem received much attention.[31]
When Swift was 15, she rejected RCA Records because the company wanted to keep her on an artist development deal.[32] After performing at Nashville's songwriters' venue, The Bluebird Café, she caught the attention of Scott Borchetta,[33] who signed her to his newly formed record label, Big Machine Records. At age 14, she became the youngest staff songwriter ever hired by the Sony/ATV Tree publishing house.[34]
Swift performing at a café with a koa wood guitar in June 2006. Swift continues to perform with custom-made Taylor guitars.[35]2006–08: Taylor SwiftSwift released her debut single, "Tim McGraw", in mid-2006, reaching #6 on Billboard magazine's Hot Country Songs chart.[36] Her self-titled debut album was later released on October 24, 2006.[37] Debuting high on the Billboard 200, the album sold 39,000 copies during its first week.[38] It peaked at #1 on the Billboard Top Country Albums and #5 on the Billboard 200.[39] Her debut album spent eight consecutive weeks at the top of the Top Country Albums charts[40] and remained at the top for 24 out of 91 weeks.[41] The only other country artists this decade to achieve the number-one sales position for 20 weeks or more are The Dixie Chicks and Carrie Underwood.[42] The music video for "Tim McGraw" won Swift an award for Breakthrough Video of the Year at the 2007 CMT Music Awards.[43] Her pursuit of country music stardom was the subject of "GAC Short Cuts", a part-documentary, part-music-video series airing since the summer of 2006.[44] On May 15, 2007, Swift performed "Tim McGraw" at the Academy of Country Music Awards. Swift has been an opening act for Tim McGraw and Faith Hill on their Soul2Soul 2007 tour. She has opened in the past for George Strait, Brad Paisley and Rascal Flatts as well.[45] The second single from the Taylor Swift album, "Teardrops on My Guitar", was released February 24, 2007. In mid-2007, the song peaked at #2 on Billboard's Hot Country Songs chart and #33 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song was re-released with a pop remix that brought "Teardrops on My Guitar" to #13 on the Hot 100 and #11 on the Pop 100. In October 2007, Swift was awarded Songwriter/Artist of the Year by the Nashville Songwriters Assn. Intl., making her the youngest artist ever to win the award.[46] Her third song off her debut album, "Our Song" spent six weeks at #1 on the Country charts, peaked at #16 on the Billboard Hot 100, and rose to #24 on the Billboard Pop 100. Swift recorded a holiday album, Sounds of the Season: The Taylor Swift Holiday Collection, which was released exclusively at Target in late 2007. Swift was nominated for a 2008 Grammy Award in the category of Best New Artist, but lost to Amy Winehouse. Swift's successful single, "Picture to Burn", was the fourth single from her debut album. The song debuted and soon peaked at #3 on the Billboard Country chart in spring 2008.
Swift performing at Yahoo HQ in 2007."Should've Said No" became Swift's second #1 single. In Summer 2008, Swift released Beautiful Eyes, an EP sold exclusively at Wal-Mart.[47] In its first week of release, the album sold 45,000 copies, debuting at #1 on Billboard's Top Country Albums chart and #9 on the Billboard 200. With her self-titled debut album sitting at #2 during the same week, Swift became the first artist since 1997 to hold the Top 2 positions of the Top Country Albums chart.[48] In October 2008, Swift performed a duet with best selling rock band Def Leppard in a taped show in Nashville, Tennessee, and their collaboration was up for both Performance of the Year and Wide Open Country Video of the Year at the CMT Music Awards in 2009.[49]
2008-2010: FearlessSwift's second studio album, Fearless, was released in the United States on November 11, 2008.[50] The album debuted at #1 on the Billboard 200 Album Chart. Its sales of 592,304 were the highest debut of any country artist in 2008. This is also the largest opening U.S. sales week in 2008 by a female artist in all genres of music, and the fourth biggest overall behind Lil Wayne, AC/DC and Coldplay.[51] Its lead single "Love Story" became a hit on both the country and pop charts. During the first week of release, more than 129,000 of Swift's sales were sold digitally. This gives Swift the best online start for any country album in history.[52] It also makes Swift the fourth biggest week for a digital album since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking them in 2004.[53] Through its eighth week of release, Fearless has sold more than 338,467 downloads, making it the bestselling country album in digital history. In second place is Swift's debut Taylor Swift with sales of 236,046 downloads as of April 18, 2009.[54] In its debut week, seven songs in total on Fearless were charted on Billboard Hot 100, tying Swift with Miley Cyrus for the most by a female artist in a single week. With "White Horse" charted at #13, this gave Swift her sixth top 20 debut of 2008, a calendar year record for any artist in the history of the Billboard Hot 100. Of the 13 tracks on Fearless, 11 have already spent time on the Hot 100.[53] "Change", a song from the album, was selected as part of a soundtrack supporting Team USA's efforts in the 2008 Summer Olympics.[55] The song was also featured as part of the soundtrack of NBC's broadcast package of the Olympics. The lead single from the album, "Love Story", was released on September 12, 2008. The Fearless album includes the "Love Story" music video which is based on Romeo and Juliet. The song has reached #2 on iTunes Store Top Downloaded Songs and #4 on the Billboard Hot 100. Fifteen weeks after being added to pop radio, "Love Story" also became the first country crossover recording to hit number one on the Nielsen BDS CHR/Top 40 chart in the 16-year-history of the list, as well as number one on the Mediabase Top 40 Chart.[56] The second single from Fearless, "White Horse", was released on December 8, 2008. The music video for the song premiered on CMT on February 7, 2009. Though it missed the #1 spot on Billboard's Hot Country Songs as of the week April 11, 2009, "White Horse" claimed the #1 spot atop the USA Today/Country Aircheck chart (powered by Mediabase) in that week.[57] "Forever & Always", another song from the album, was based on Swift's relationship with singer Joe Jonas.[58] She was the first artist in the history of Nielsen SoundScan to have two different albums in the Top 10 on the year end album chart.[5] It also was the first album by a female artist in country music history to log eight weeks at #1 on The Billboard 200. In mid-January 2009, Swift became the first country artist to top the 2 million mark in paid downloads with three different songs.[59] Swift is Billboard's Top Country Artist and Hot Country Songwriter of 2008; she is also country music's best-selling artist of 2008.[60] Swift ranked seventh on Nielsen SoundScan Canada's top-10 selling artists across all genres in 2008. Fearless and Taylor Swift took the #1 and #2 slots on 2008 Year-End Canadian Country Albums Chart.[61] Swift sang the Star-Spangled Banner at game three of the World Series in Philadelphia on October 25, 2008.
Swift performing as the headlining act at the 2010 Cavendish Beach Music Festival in Prince Edward Island, Canada.In January 2009, Swift announced her North American Fearless Tour planned for 52 cities in 38 states and provinces in the US and Canada over the span of 6 months.[62] The tour kicked off April 23 in Evansville, Indiana. In the same month, Swift made her first musical guest appearance on Saturday Night Live.[63][64] On February 8, 2009, Swift performed her song "Fifteen" with Miley Cyrus at the 51st Grammy Awards. As of the week ending February 8, 2009, Swift's single "Love Story" became the country song with the most paid downloads in history.[65][66] Since the release of Swift's second album, Fearless, she has released one new song "Crazier" for the soundtrack of the feature film Hannah Montana: The Movie. At the 44th Annual Academy of Country Music Awards, Swift picked up Album of the Year honors as a performer and producer for Fearless. Swift is the youngest artist in history to win the ACM Album of the Year award. The Academy lauded her for career achievements including selling more albums in 2008 than any other artist in any genre of music, the breakthrough success of her debut album, and the worldwide crossover success of her #1 single "Love Story". The Academy also cited Swift's contribution to helping country music attract a younger audience.[67] As of late April 2009, Swift has sold more than 14 million downloads, as well as three Gold Mobile Ringtones.[68] On April 28, 2009, Swift gave a free, private concert to students at Bishop Ireton High School, a small Catholic school in Alexandria, Virginia after the school won a national "TXT 2 WIN" contest from Verizon Wireless.[69] The students sent over 19,000 text messages to Verizon during a roughly one month long contest. Swift played for about an hour during the school's field day, an annual day-long recess with games and activities. On October 8, 2009 Swift's official website announced that her sold-out Fearless Tour would return to North America for 37 additional dates in 2010.
West taking the microphone from Swift at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards.Scheduled to perform on September 13, 2009, Swift attended the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards. This was her first VMA performance, where she became the first country music artist to win an MTV Video Music Award.[70] During the show, as Swift was on stage accepting the award for Best Female Video for "You Belong with Me," singer/rapper Kanye West came on stage and took the microphone from Swift, saying that Beyoncé's video for "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", nominated for the same award, was "one of the best videos of all time," an action that caused the many audience members to boo West.[71][72] He handed the microphone back to a stunned and reportedly upset Swift, who did not finish her acceptance speech.[71][73] When Beyoncé later won the award for Best Video of the Year for "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", she called Swift up on stage so that she could finish her acceptance speech.[71][74] Following the awards show, West apologized for his verbal outburst in a blog entry (which was subsequently removed).[71] He was criticized by various celebrities for the outburst,[72][75][76][77][78] and even by President Barack Obama in an "off the record" comment.[79][80][81][82] He later posted a second apology on his blog and made his first public apology one day after the incident on the debut episode of The Jay Leno Show.[72] On September 15, 2009, Swift talked about the matter on The View, where she said she was at first excited to see West on stage and then disappointed once he acted out.[83][84] She said West had not spoken to her following the incident.[84] Following her appearance on The View, West contacted her to apologize personally; Swift said she accepted his apology.[70][84] However, on November 8, 2010, in an interview with a Minnesota radio station, West seemed to recant a bit of his past apologies by attempting to describe the act at the 2009 awards show as "selfless" and downgrade the perception of disrespect it created.[85][86]
Swift at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards with her award.On November 11, 2009, Swift became the youngest artist ever to win the Country Music Association Award for Entertainer of the year, and is one of only six women to win the Country Music Association's highest honor.[87] On the chart week of November 14, 2009, Swift set a record for the most songs on the Billboard Hot 100 by a female artist at the same time with eight singles from the re-release of her 2008 album Fearless namely five debut new songs in the top 30: "Jump Then Fall" at #10, "Untouchable" at #19, "The Other Side of the Door" at #22, "Superstar" at #27 and "Come in With the Rain" at #30 and three already-charted songs that were released as singles—"You Belong with Me" (#14), "Forever & Always" which re-entered the chart at #34, and "Fifteen" (#46).[88] In addition, the song "Two Is Better Than One" by Boys Like Girls which features Swift, debuted at #80 in the same issue. This gives Swift six debuts in one week, the biggest number of debuts by any female artist of all time. It also lifts the number of her simultaneously-charting songs to nine, setting another record for the biggest number of charting songs by the same female artist in the same week.[89] When "Fifteen" reached #38 on the chart week of November 21, 2009, Swift became the female artist with the most Top 40 singles this decade, surpassing Beyoncé. "Fifteen" became Swift's twentieth Top 40 single overall.[90] "Two Is Better Than One" by Boys Like Girls and John Mayer's "Half of My Heart" both featured Swift, peaking at #40 and #25 respectively. The two songs are her 21st and 22nd Top 40 singles. Fearless was the best-selling album of 2009 in the US with more than 3.2 millions copies sold in that year. Swift claimed both the #1 and #2 positions atop Nielsen's BDS Top 10 Most Played Songs chart (all genres), with "You Belong With Me" and "Love Story," respectively. She also topped the all format 2009 Top 10 Artist Airplay chart with over 1.29 million song detections, and the Top 10 Artist Internet Streams chart with more than 46 million song plays.[91]
2010–present: Speak NowSwift released the track "Today Was a Fairytale" as a digital download on iTunes on January 19, 2010. The song was featured on the soundtrack for the film Valentine's Day, in which she made her feature-film acting debut. The song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at No. 2,[92] becoming her sixth Top 10 and 23rd Top 40 single on that chart. According to Nielsen SoundScan, with sales of "Today Was a Fairytale" more than 325,000 in its first week, Swift has broken the record for first-week download sales by a female artist.[93] The song also debuted at number one on the Canadian Hot 100, making it Swift's first number one hit in Canada. In February 2010, Swift brought her Fearless Tour to 5 cities in Australia. Opening acts included Gloriana.[94] In mid-July 2010, Billboard revealed that Swift's new album is called Speak Now. It was released on October 25, 2010.[95] She has written the album completely by herself in Arkansas, New York, Boston and Nashville with Nathan Chapman serving as co-producer. On Wednesday, August 4, 2010, the lead single from the album, "Mine," was leaked onto the internet. Big Machine Records decided to rush the release of the song to counteract the leak. Swift appeared at the 44th Annual Country Music Awards on November 10, 2010.[96] In 2011, Swift visited Singapore as the first stop of the Asian leg of her first world tour.[97] Hong Kong is the last stop of the Speak Now World Tour and Swift will begin the European and American leg afterwards.[98] Taylor Swift sold approximately 4,470,000 albums in the US in 2010 (more than any other artist) and sold 9.9 million digital tracks.[99]
When Swift was 15, she rejected RCA Records because the company wanted to keep her on an artist development deal.[32] After performing at Nashville's songwriters' venue, The Bluebird Café, she caught the attention of Scott Borchetta,[33] who signed her to his newly formed record label, Big Machine Records. At age 14, she became the youngest staff songwriter ever hired by the Sony/ATV Tree publishing house.[34]
Swift performing at a café with a koa wood guitar in June 2006. Swift continues to perform with custom-made Taylor guitars.[35]2006–08: Taylor SwiftSwift released her debut single, "Tim McGraw", in mid-2006, reaching #6 on Billboard magazine's Hot Country Songs chart.[36] Her self-titled debut album was later released on October 24, 2006.[37] Debuting high on the Billboard 200, the album sold 39,000 copies during its first week.[38] It peaked at #1 on the Billboard Top Country Albums and #5 on the Billboard 200.[39] Her debut album spent eight consecutive weeks at the top of the Top Country Albums charts[40] and remained at the top for 24 out of 91 weeks.[41] The only other country artists this decade to achieve the number-one sales position for 20 weeks or more are The Dixie Chicks and Carrie Underwood.[42] The music video for "Tim McGraw" won Swift an award for Breakthrough Video of the Year at the 2007 CMT Music Awards.[43] Her pursuit of country music stardom was the subject of "GAC Short Cuts", a part-documentary, part-music-video series airing since the summer of 2006.[44] On May 15, 2007, Swift performed "Tim McGraw" at the Academy of Country Music Awards. Swift has been an opening act for Tim McGraw and Faith Hill on their Soul2Soul 2007 tour. She has opened in the past for George Strait, Brad Paisley and Rascal Flatts as well.[45] The second single from the Taylor Swift album, "Teardrops on My Guitar", was released February 24, 2007. In mid-2007, the song peaked at #2 on Billboard's Hot Country Songs chart and #33 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song was re-released with a pop remix that brought "Teardrops on My Guitar" to #13 on the Hot 100 and #11 on the Pop 100. In October 2007, Swift was awarded Songwriter/Artist of the Year by the Nashville Songwriters Assn. Intl., making her the youngest artist ever to win the award.[46] Her third song off her debut album, "Our Song" spent six weeks at #1 on the Country charts, peaked at #16 on the Billboard Hot 100, and rose to #24 on the Billboard Pop 100. Swift recorded a holiday album, Sounds of the Season: The Taylor Swift Holiday Collection, which was released exclusively at Target in late 2007. Swift was nominated for a 2008 Grammy Award in the category of Best New Artist, but lost to Amy Winehouse. Swift's successful single, "Picture to Burn", was the fourth single from her debut album. The song debuted and soon peaked at #3 on the Billboard Country chart in spring 2008.
Swift performing at Yahoo HQ in 2007."Should've Said No" became Swift's second #1 single. In Summer 2008, Swift released Beautiful Eyes, an EP sold exclusively at Wal-Mart.[47] In its first week of release, the album sold 45,000 copies, debuting at #1 on Billboard's Top Country Albums chart and #9 on the Billboard 200. With her self-titled debut album sitting at #2 during the same week, Swift became the first artist since 1997 to hold the Top 2 positions of the Top Country Albums chart.[48] In October 2008, Swift performed a duet with best selling rock band Def Leppard in a taped show in Nashville, Tennessee, and their collaboration was up for both Performance of the Year and Wide Open Country Video of the Year at the CMT Music Awards in 2009.[49]
2008-2010: FearlessSwift's second studio album, Fearless, was released in the United States on November 11, 2008.[50] The album debuted at #1 on the Billboard 200 Album Chart. Its sales of 592,304 were the highest debut of any country artist in 2008. This is also the largest opening U.S. sales week in 2008 by a female artist in all genres of music, and the fourth biggest overall behind Lil Wayne, AC/DC and Coldplay.[51] Its lead single "Love Story" became a hit on both the country and pop charts. During the first week of release, more than 129,000 of Swift's sales were sold digitally. This gives Swift the best online start for any country album in history.[52] It also makes Swift the fourth biggest week for a digital album since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking them in 2004.[53] Through its eighth week of release, Fearless has sold more than 338,467 downloads, making it the bestselling country album in digital history. In second place is Swift's debut Taylor Swift with sales of 236,046 downloads as of April 18, 2009.[54] In its debut week, seven songs in total on Fearless were charted on Billboard Hot 100, tying Swift with Miley Cyrus for the most by a female artist in a single week. With "White Horse" charted at #13, this gave Swift her sixth top 20 debut of 2008, a calendar year record for any artist in the history of the Billboard Hot 100. Of the 13 tracks on Fearless, 11 have already spent time on the Hot 100.[53] "Change", a song from the album, was selected as part of a soundtrack supporting Team USA's efforts in the 2008 Summer Olympics.[55] The song was also featured as part of the soundtrack of NBC's broadcast package of the Olympics. The lead single from the album, "Love Story", was released on September 12, 2008. The Fearless album includes the "Love Story" music video which is based on Romeo and Juliet. The song has reached #2 on iTunes Store Top Downloaded Songs and #4 on the Billboard Hot 100. Fifteen weeks after being added to pop radio, "Love Story" also became the first country crossover recording to hit number one on the Nielsen BDS CHR/Top 40 chart in the 16-year-history of the list, as well as number one on the Mediabase Top 40 Chart.[56] The second single from Fearless, "White Horse", was released on December 8, 2008. The music video for the song premiered on CMT on February 7, 2009. Though it missed the #1 spot on Billboard's Hot Country Songs as of the week April 11, 2009, "White Horse" claimed the #1 spot atop the USA Today/Country Aircheck chart (powered by Mediabase) in that week.[57] "Forever & Always", another song from the album, was based on Swift's relationship with singer Joe Jonas.[58] She was the first artist in the history of Nielsen SoundScan to have two different albums in the Top 10 on the year end album chart.[5] It also was the first album by a female artist in country music history to log eight weeks at #1 on The Billboard 200. In mid-January 2009, Swift became the first country artist to top the 2 million mark in paid downloads with three different songs.[59] Swift is Billboard's Top Country Artist and Hot Country Songwriter of 2008; she is also country music's best-selling artist of 2008.[60] Swift ranked seventh on Nielsen SoundScan Canada's top-10 selling artists across all genres in 2008. Fearless and Taylor Swift took the #1 and #2 slots on 2008 Year-End Canadian Country Albums Chart.[61] Swift sang the Star-Spangled Banner at game three of the World Series in Philadelphia on October 25, 2008.
Swift performing as the headlining act at the 2010 Cavendish Beach Music Festival in Prince Edward Island, Canada.In January 2009, Swift announced her North American Fearless Tour planned for 52 cities in 38 states and provinces in the US and Canada over the span of 6 months.[62] The tour kicked off April 23 in Evansville, Indiana. In the same month, Swift made her first musical guest appearance on Saturday Night Live.[63][64] On February 8, 2009, Swift performed her song "Fifteen" with Miley Cyrus at the 51st Grammy Awards. As of the week ending February 8, 2009, Swift's single "Love Story" became the country song with the most paid downloads in history.[65][66] Since the release of Swift's second album, Fearless, she has released one new song "Crazier" for the soundtrack of the feature film Hannah Montana: The Movie. At the 44th Annual Academy of Country Music Awards, Swift picked up Album of the Year honors as a performer and producer for Fearless. Swift is the youngest artist in history to win the ACM Album of the Year award. The Academy lauded her for career achievements including selling more albums in 2008 than any other artist in any genre of music, the breakthrough success of her debut album, and the worldwide crossover success of her #1 single "Love Story". The Academy also cited Swift's contribution to helping country music attract a younger audience.[67] As of late April 2009, Swift has sold more than 14 million downloads, as well as three Gold Mobile Ringtones.[68] On April 28, 2009, Swift gave a free, private concert to students at Bishop Ireton High School, a small Catholic school in Alexandria, Virginia after the school won a national "TXT 2 WIN" contest from Verizon Wireless.[69] The students sent over 19,000 text messages to Verizon during a roughly one month long contest. Swift played for about an hour during the school's field day, an annual day-long recess with games and activities. On October 8, 2009 Swift's official website announced that her sold-out Fearless Tour would return to North America for 37 additional dates in 2010.
West taking the microphone from Swift at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards.Scheduled to perform on September 13, 2009, Swift attended the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards. This was her first VMA performance, where she became the first country music artist to win an MTV Video Music Award.[70] During the show, as Swift was on stage accepting the award for Best Female Video for "You Belong with Me," singer/rapper Kanye West came on stage and took the microphone from Swift, saying that Beyoncé's video for "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", nominated for the same award, was "one of the best videos of all time," an action that caused the many audience members to boo West.[71][72] He handed the microphone back to a stunned and reportedly upset Swift, who did not finish her acceptance speech.[71][73] When Beyoncé later won the award for Best Video of the Year for "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", she called Swift up on stage so that she could finish her acceptance speech.[71][74] Following the awards show, West apologized for his verbal outburst in a blog entry (which was subsequently removed).[71] He was criticized by various celebrities for the outburst,[72][75][76][77][78] and even by President Barack Obama in an "off the record" comment.[79][80][81][82] He later posted a second apology on his blog and made his first public apology one day after the incident on the debut episode of The Jay Leno Show.[72] On September 15, 2009, Swift talked about the matter on The View, where she said she was at first excited to see West on stage and then disappointed once he acted out.[83][84] She said West had not spoken to her following the incident.[84] Following her appearance on The View, West contacted her to apologize personally; Swift said she accepted his apology.[70][84] However, on November 8, 2010, in an interview with a Minnesota radio station, West seemed to recant a bit of his past apologies by attempting to describe the act at the 2009 awards show as "selfless" and downgrade the perception of disrespect it created.[85][86]
Swift at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards with her award.On November 11, 2009, Swift became the youngest artist ever to win the Country Music Association Award for Entertainer of the year, and is one of only six women to win the Country Music Association's highest honor.[87] On the chart week of November 14, 2009, Swift set a record for the most songs on the Billboard Hot 100 by a female artist at the same time with eight singles from the re-release of her 2008 album Fearless namely five debut new songs in the top 30: "Jump Then Fall" at #10, "Untouchable" at #19, "The Other Side of the Door" at #22, "Superstar" at #27 and "Come in With the Rain" at #30 and three already-charted songs that were released as singles—"You Belong with Me" (#14), "Forever & Always" which re-entered the chart at #34, and "Fifteen" (#46).[88] In addition, the song "Two Is Better Than One" by Boys Like Girls which features Swift, debuted at #80 in the same issue. This gives Swift six debuts in one week, the biggest number of debuts by any female artist of all time. It also lifts the number of her simultaneously-charting songs to nine, setting another record for the biggest number of charting songs by the same female artist in the same week.[89] When "Fifteen" reached #38 on the chart week of November 21, 2009, Swift became the female artist with the most Top 40 singles this decade, surpassing Beyoncé. "Fifteen" became Swift's twentieth Top 40 single overall.[90] "Two Is Better Than One" by Boys Like Girls and John Mayer's "Half of My Heart" both featured Swift, peaking at #40 and #25 respectively. The two songs are her 21st and 22nd Top 40 singles. Fearless was the best-selling album of 2009 in the US with more than 3.2 millions copies sold in that year. Swift claimed both the #1 and #2 positions atop Nielsen's BDS Top 10 Most Played Songs chart (all genres), with "You Belong With Me" and "Love Story," respectively. She also topped the all format 2009 Top 10 Artist Airplay chart with over 1.29 million song detections, and the Top 10 Artist Internet Streams chart with more than 46 million song plays.[91]
2010–present: Speak NowSwift released the track "Today Was a Fairytale" as a digital download on iTunes on January 19, 2010. The song was featured on the soundtrack for the film Valentine's Day, in which she made her feature-film acting debut. The song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at No. 2,[92] becoming her sixth Top 10 and 23rd Top 40 single on that chart. According to Nielsen SoundScan, with sales of "Today Was a Fairytale" more than 325,000 in its first week, Swift has broken the record for first-week download sales by a female artist.[93] The song also debuted at number one on the Canadian Hot 100, making it Swift's first number one hit in Canada. In February 2010, Swift brought her Fearless Tour to 5 cities in Australia. Opening acts included Gloriana.[94] In mid-July 2010, Billboard revealed that Swift's new album is called Speak Now. It was released on October 25, 2010.[95] She has written the album completely by herself in Arkansas, New York, Boston and Nashville with Nathan Chapman serving as co-producer. On Wednesday, August 4, 2010, the lead single from the album, "Mine," was leaked onto the internet. Big Machine Records decided to rush the release of the song to counteract the leak. Swift appeared at the 44th Annual Country Music Awards on November 10, 2010.[96] In 2011, Swift visited Singapore as the first stop of the Asian leg of her first world tour.[97] Hong Kong is the last stop of the Speak Now World Tour and Swift will begin the European and American leg afterwards.[98] Taylor Swift sold approximately 4,470,000 albums in the US in 2010 (more than any other artist) and sold 9.9 million digital tracks.[99]
Rowan Atkinson
RadioAtkinson starred in a series of comedy shows for BBC Radio 3 in 1978 called "The Atkinson People". It consisted of a series of satirical interviews with fictional great men, who were played by Atkinson himself. The series was written by Atkinson and Richard Curtis, and produced by Griff Rhys Jones.[11]
TelevisionAfter university, Atkinson toured with Angus Deayton as his funny man in an act that was eventually filmed for a television show. After the success of the show, he did a one-off pilot for ITV in 1979 called Canned Laughter. Atkinson then went on to do Not the Nine O'Clock News, produced by his friend John Lloyd. He starred on the show along with Pamela Stephenson, Griff Rhys Jones and Mel Smith, and was one of the main sketch writers.
The success of Not the Nine O'Clock News led to his starring in the medieval sitcom The Black Adder, which he also co-wrote with Richard Curtis, in 1983. After a three-year gap, in part due to budgetary concerns, a second series was written, this time by Curtis and Ben Elton, and first screened in 1986. Blackadder II followed the fortunes of one of the descendants of Atkinson's original character, this time in the Elizabethan era. The same pattern was repeated in the two sequels Blackadder the Third (1987) (set in the Regency era), and Blackadder Goes Forth (1989) (set in World War I). The Blackadder series went on to become one of the most successful BBC situation comedies of all time, spawning television specials including Blackadder's Christmas Carol (1988) and Blackadder: The Cavalier Years (1988).
Atkinson's other famous creation, the hapless Mr. Bean, first appeared on New Years Day in 1990 in a half-hour special for Thames Television. The character of Mr. Bean has been likened somewhat to a modern-day Buster Keaton.[12] During this time, Atkinson appeared at the Just for Laughs comedy festival in Montreal in 1987 and 1989. Several sequels to Mr. Bean appeared on television in the 1990s, and it eventually made into a major motion picture in 1997. Entitled Bean, it was directed by Mel Smith, his former co-star from Not the Nine O'Clock News. A second movie was released in 2007 entitled Mr. Bean's Holiday.
In 1995 and 1997, Atkinson portrayed Inspector Raymond Fowler in the popular The Thin Blue Line television series, written by Ben Elton, which takes place in a police station located in fictitious Gasforth.
Atkinson has fronted campaigns for Kronenbourg,[13] Hitachi electrical goods,[citation needed] Fujifilm, and Give Blood. Most famously, he appeared as a hapless and error-prone espionage agent in a long-running series for Barclaycard, on which character his title role in Johnny English and Johnny English Reborn was based.
He also starred in a comedy spoof of Doctor Who as the Doctor, for a red nose day benefit.
Film
Atkinson as Mr. Bean, in Brussels, next to the Manneken Pis.Atkinson's film career began in 1983 with a supporting part in the 'unofficial' James Bond movie Never Say Never Again and a leading role in Dead on Time with Nigel Hawthorne. He appeared in former Not the Nine O'Clock News co-star Mel Smith's directorial debut The Tall Guy in 1989. He also appeared alongside Anjelica Huston and Mai Zetterling in Roald Dahl's The Witches in 1990. In 1993 he played the part of Dexter Hayman in Hot Shots! Part Deux, a parody of Rambo III, starring Charlie Sheen.
Atkinson gained further recognition with his turn as a verbally bumbling vicar in the 1994 hit Four Weddings and a Funeral. That same year he was featured in Walt Disney's The Lion King as Zazu the Red-billed Hornbill. Atkinson continued to appear in supporting roles in successful comedies, including Rat Race (2001), Scooby-Doo (2002), and Love Actually (2003).
In 2005, he acted in the crime/comedy Keeping Mum, which also starred Kristin Scott Thomas, Maggie Smith and Patrick Swayze.
In addition to his supporting roles, Atkinson has also had success as a leading man. His television character Mr. Bean debuted on the big screen in 1997 with Bean to international success. A sequel, Mr. Bean's Holiday, was released in March 2007 and may be the last time he plays the character.[14] He has also starred in the James Bond parody Johnny English in 2003. Its sequel, Johnny English Reborn will be released in 2011.
TheatreRowan Atkinson appeared in the 2009 revival of the West End musical Oliver! as Fagin.[15] The production was directed by Rupert Goold. A year prior he starred in a pre-West End run of the show in Oxford, directed by Jez Bond.
TelevisionAfter university, Atkinson toured with Angus Deayton as his funny man in an act that was eventually filmed for a television show. After the success of the show, he did a one-off pilot for ITV in 1979 called Canned Laughter. Atkinson then went on to do Not the Nine O'Clock News, produced by his friend John Lloyd. He starred on the show along with Pamela Stephenson, Griff Rhys Jones and Mel Smith, and was one of the main sketch writers.
The success of Not the Nine O'Clock News led to his starring in the medieval sitcom The Black Adder, which he also co-wrote with Richard Curtis, in 1983. After a three-year gap, in part due to budgetary concerns, a second series was written, this time by Curtis and Ben Elton, and first screened in 1986. Blackadder II followed the fortunes of one of the descendants of Atkinson's original character, this time in the Elizabethan era. The same pattern was repeated in the two sequels Blackadder the Third (1987) (set in the Regency era), and Blackadder Goes Forth (1989) (set in World War I). The Blackadder series went on to become one of the most successful BBC situation comedies of all time, spawning television specials including Blackadder's Christmas Carol (1988) and Blackadder: The Cavalier Years (1988).
Atkinson's other famous creation, the hapless Mr. Bean, first appeared on New Years Day in 1990 in a half-hour special for Thames Television. The character of Mr. Bean has been likened somewhat to a modern-day Buster Keaton.[12] During this time, Atkinson appeared at the Just for Laughs comedy festival in Montreal in 1987 and 1989. Several sequels to Mr. Bean appeared on television in the 1990s, and it eventually made into a major motion picture in 1997. Entitled Bean, it was directed by Mel Smith, his former co-star from Not the Nine O'Clock News. A second movie was released in 2007 entitled Mr. Bean's Holiday.
In 1995 and 1997, Atkinson portrayed Inspector Raymond Fowler in the popular The Thin Blue Line television series, written by Ben Elton, which takes place in a police station located in fictitious Gasforth.
Atkinson has fronted campaigns for Kronenbourg,[13] Hitachi electrical goods,[citation needed] Fujifilm, and Give Blood. Most famously, he appeared as a hapless and error-prone espionage agent in a long-running series for Barclaycard, on which character his title role in Johnny English and Johnny English Reborn was based.
He also starred in a comedy spoof of Doctor Who as the Doctor, for a red nose day benefit.
Film
Atkinson as Mr. Bean, in Brussels, next to the Manneken Pis.Atkinson's film career began in 1983 with a supporting part in the 'unofficial' James Bond movie Never Say Never Again and a leading role in Dead on Time with Nigel Hawthorne. He appeared in former Not the Nine O'Clock News co-star Mel Smith's directorial debut The Tall Guy in 1989. He also appeared alongside Anjelica Huston and Mai Zetterling in Roald Dahl's The Witches in 1990. In 1993 he played the part of Dexter Hayman in Hot Shots! Part Deux, a parody of Rambo III, starring Charlie Sheen.
Atkinson gained further recognition with his turn as a verbally bumbling vicar in the 1994 hit Four Weddings and a Funeral. That same year he was featured in Walt Disney's The Lion King as Zazu the Red-billed Hornbill. Atkinson continued to appear in supporting roles in successful comedies, including Rat Race (2001), Scooby-Doo (2002), and Love Actually (2003).
In 2005, he acted in the crime/comedy Keeping Mum, which also starred Kristin Scott Thomas, Maggie Smith and Patrick Swayze.
In addition to his supporting roles, Atkinson has also had success as a leading man. His television character Mr. Bean debuted on the big screen in 1997 with Bean to international success. A sequel, Mr. Bean's Holiday, was released in March 2007 and may be the last time he plays the character.[14] He has also starred in the James Bond parody Johnny English in 2003. Its sequel, Johnny English Reborn will be released in 2011.
TheatreRowan Atkinson appeared in the 2009 revival of the West End musical Oliver! as Fagin.[15] The production was directed by Rupert Goold. A year prior he starred in a pre-West End run of the show in Oxford, directed by Jez Bond.
Big Ben
Big Ben is the nickname for the great bell of the clock at the north end of the Palace of Westminster in London,[1] and is generally extended to refer to the clock or the clock tower as well. Some believe this extension to be incorrect, but its usage is now entirely commonplace.[2] It is the largest four-faced chiming clock and the third-tallest free-standing clock tower in the world.[3] It celebrated its 150th anniversary in May 2009,[4] during which celebratory events took place.[5][6] The clock was finished being built on April 10, 1858. The clock tower has become one of the most prominent symbols of both London and England, often in the establishing shot of films set in the city.
why muslim women wear veil
Male modesty has been interpreted to be covering the area from the navel to the knee - and for women it is generally seen as covering everything except their face, hands and feet when in the presence of men they are not related or married to.
However, there has been much debate among Islamic scholars as to whether this goes far enough.
This has led to a distinction between the hijab (literally "covering up" in Arabic) and the niqab (meaning "full veil").
Hijab is a common sight among Muslim women, a scarf that covers their hair and neck.
Niqab consists of covering up completely, including gloves and a veil for the face - leaving just a slit for the eyes, or covering them too with transparent material.
Tell the faithful women to lower their gaze and guard their private parts and not display their beauty except what is apparent of it, and to extend their scarf to cover their bosom
Koran, 24:31 (English translation)
This form of dress is rarer, although it has been growing in recent years, and it is this which former UK Foreign Secretary Jack Straw says he objects to at face-to-face meetings with his constituents.
Muslim scholars have debated whether it is obligatory to don the niqab, or whether it is just recommended without being obligatory.
There have also been more liberal interpretations which say the headscarf is unnecessary, as long as women maintain the sartorial modesty stipulated in the Koran.
Scholarly dispute
The holy text addresses "the faithful women" who are told to shield their private parts and not to display their adornment "except what is apparent of it".
Scholarly disputes revolve around what this last phrase means.
Find out about different styles of Muslim headscarf
In graphics
Does it refer to the outer surface of a woman's garments, necessitating that she cover every part of her body - ie don the full niqab?
Or does it give an exemption referring to the face and the hands, as well as conventional female ornaments such as kohl, rings, bracelets and make-up?
The latter interpretation has been adopted by some of the most prominent scholars from Islamic history, such as Abu Jafar al-Tabari, who favour the hijab option.
There are additional Koranic instructions - seen as ambiguous and therefore much debated - for women to draw the "khimar" (or scarf) to cover the "jayb" (or bosom/upper chest), and for "the wives and daughters of the Prophet and the women of the believers to draw their "jalabib" (or cloaks) close round them".
Religious and cultural traditions vary across the Muslim world, stretching from Indonesia to Morocco.
But it may also be left to the Muslim woman to decide for herself, whether she wants to cover up fully with the niqab, as an expression of her faith and Islamic identity, or not.
In countries such as France and Turkey, where there are legal curbs on religious dress, it becomes a matter of women's human rights to wear what they want.
But at the same time the niqab is such a powerful statement that more liberal Muslims sometimes can be heard objecting to it, especially in more developed societies, where women have fought long and hard to shake off restrictions seen as outdated and imposed by men.
However, there has been much debate among Islamic scholars as to whether this goes far enough.
This has led to a distinction between the hijab (literally "covering up" in Arabic) and the niqab (meaning "full veil").
Hijab is a common sight among Muslim women, a scarf that covers their hair and neck.
Niqab consists of covering up completely, including gloves and a veil for the face - leaving just a slit for the eyes, or covering them too with transparent material.
Tell the faithful women to lower their gaze and guard their private parts and not display their beauty except what is apparent of it, and to extend their scarf to cover their bosom
Koran, 24:31 (English translation)
This form of dress is rarer, although it has been growing in recent years, and it is this which former UK Foreign Secretary Jack Straw says he objects to at face-to-face meetings with his constituents.
Muslim scholars have debated whether it is obligatory to don the niqab, or whether it is just recommended without being obligatory.
There have also been more liberal interpretations which say the headscarf is unnecessary, as long as women maintain the sartorial modesty stipulated in the Koran.
Scholarly dispute
The holy text addresses "the faithful women" who are told to shield their private parts and not to display their adornment "except what is apparent of it".
Scholarly disputes revolve around what this last phrase means.
Find out about different styles of Muslim headscarf
In graphics
Does it refer to the outer surface of a woman's garments, necessitating that she cover every part of her body - ie don the full niqab?
Or does it give an exemption referring to the face and the hands, as well as conventional female ornaments such as kohl, rings, bracelets and make-up?
The latter interpretation has been adopted by some of the most prominent scholars from Islamic history, such as Abu Jafar al-Tabari, who favour the hijab option.
There are additional Koranic instructions - seen as ambiguous and therefore much debated - for women to draw the "khimar" (or scarf) to cover the "jayb" (or bosom/upper chest), and for "the wives and daughters of the Prophet and the women of the believers to draw their "jalabib" (or cloaks) close round them".
Religious and cultural traditions vary across the Muslim world, stretching from Indonesia to Morocco.
But it may also be left to the Muslim woman to decide for herself, whether she wants to cover up fully with the niqab, as an expression of her faith and Islamic identity, or not.
In countries such as France and Turkey, where there are legal curbs on religious dress, it becomes a matter of women's human rights to wear what they want.
But at the same time the niqab is such a powerful statement that more liberal Muslims sometimes can be heard objecting to it, especially in more developed societies, where women have fought long and hard to shake off restrictions seen as outdated and imposed by men.
Dead Sea
According to the tradition of Islam, the Dead Sea was near the land in which the Prophet Lut lived. The people in this area were considered wicked for their acts of homosexuality, robbery and murder, and by the command of Allah, Prophet Lut preached to his people to repent and turn to Allah. They arrogantly refused to leave their wicked ways and they continuously rejected the preachings of Prophet Lut, except for a very few. Every message that was brought to them, they flipped it to satisfy their own wicked selves. The People of Lut received many warnings to repent or be punish but they did not take any seriously. Finally Allah sent three angels as handsome young men to be guests of Prophet Lut, when the people heard of this they rushed to Lut's home. The people demanded that these young men be given to them as they wanted to perform these wicked acts with them. One of the angels, angel Jibrail, gave Prophet Lut the warning to leave the town with his band of believers and do not look back. The entire town and its people were lifted up by angel Jibrail and flipped upside down and sent smashing down to earth, causing the ground near the impact to cave in. Thus, the lowest land on Earth was formed because of this punishment.
why muslim cannot eat pork
In folklore terms, eating the meat of the pig is said to contribute to lack of morality and shame, plus greed for wealth, laziness, indulgence, dirtiness and gluttony. We insult a person by calling him or her a "Pig" when they demonstrate these characteristics. Muslims are forbidden by God to eat the meat of the pig (pork).
This is detailed in verses 2:173, 5:3, 6:145, and 16:115 of the Qur'an. An exemplary verse is quoted here: "He has only forbidden you dead meat, and blood, and the flesh of swine, and any (food) over which the name of other than Allah has been invoked. But if one is forced by necessity, without willful disobedience, nor transgressing due limits, then Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful."
Is Pork Forbidden to Muslims Only?
The Jews and Christians are also forbidden from eating pork. Here is a quote from the Old Testament to that effect: "And the swine, because it divideth the hoof, yet cheweth not the cud, it is unclean unto you: ye shall not eat of their flesh, nor touch their dead carcase." Deuteronomy 14:8
Many Christians believe that this verse was directed only at the Jews. But Jesus himself says during the Sermon on the Mount; "Think not that I am come to destroy the Law, or the Prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfill." Some Christians say that, after a vision by St. Peter, God cleansed all animals and made them fit and lawful for human consumption. If ALL animals are cleansed by Peter's vision, this includes dogs, cats, vultures, and rats: but you just don't see people getting excited about a cat-meat sandwich like they do over barbecued pork or bacon. Others say that it was Paul who rescinded the law forbidding pork to humans, in order to appease the Romans, who enjoyed the taste of pig-meat. Many excuses have been given, but none are very sound.
Many Far Eastern traditions also discourage the eating of pork. The 3,000 year old Confucian Book of Rites says, "Agentleman does not eat the flesh of pigs and dogs." Although many Chinese are avid eaters of pork today, physicians of ancient China recognized pork-eating as the root of many human ailments. Buddhists, Jains and Hindus usually avoid eating any kind of meat.
Bad effects of pork consumption
Pig's bodies contain many toxins, worms and latent diseases. Although some of these infestations are harbored in other animals, modern veterinarians say that pigs are far more predisposed to these illnesses than other animals. This could be because pigs like to scavenge and will eat any kind of food, including dead insects, worms, rotting carcasses, excreta (including their own), garbage, and other pigs.
Influenza (flu) is one of the most famous illnesses which pigs share with humans. This illness is harbored in the lungs of pigs during the summer months and tends to affect pigs and humans in the cooler months. Sausage contains bits of pigs' lungs, so those who eat pork sausage tend to suffer more during epidemics of influenza. Pig meat contains excessive quantities of histamine and imidazole compounds, which can lead to itching and inflammation; growth hormone, which promotes inflammation and growth; sulphur-containing mesenchymal mucus, which leads to swelling and deposits of mucus in tendons and cartilage, resulting in arthritis, rheumatism, etc.
Sulfur helps cause firm human tendons and ligaments to be replaced by the pig's soft mesenchymal tissues, and degeneration of human cartilage. Eating pork can also lead to gallstones and obesity, probably due to its high cholesterol and saturated fat content. The pig is the main carrier of the taenia solium worm, which is found it its flesh. These tapeworms are found in human intestines with greater frequency in nations where pigs are eaten. This type of tapeworm can pass through the intestines and affect many other organs, and is incurable once it reaches beyond a certain stage. One in six people in the US and Canada has trichinosis from eating trichina worms which are found in pork. Many people have no symptoms to warn them of this, and when they do, they resemble symptoms of many other illnesses. These worms are not noticed during meat inspections, nor are they killed by salting or smoking. Few people cook the meat long enough to kill the trichinae. The rat (another scavenger) also harbors this disease. There are dozens of other worms, germs, diseases and bacteria which are commonly found in pigs, many of which are specific to the pig, or found in greater frequency in pigs.
Pigs are biologically similar to humans, and their meat is said to taste similar to human flesh. Pigs have been used for dissection in biology labs due to the similarity between their organs and human organs. People with insulin-dependent diabetes usually inject themselves with pig insulin.
Kindness to animals
Every creature was created by Allah for a purpose. The Prophet always encouraged being kind to animals. Although we should not eat the meat of the pig, it doesn't mean that we should hate pigs. We should show them the same kindness as any other animal, and not abuse or torture them. Pigs score high on tests devised to determine animal intelligence; in other words, they are very smart. It used to be that Europe people believed that pork would taste better if the pigs were kept in a state of filth, but this is not the natural inclination of the pig. When left to their own devices, it is said that pigs do not like to soil their sleeping quarters. As for their tendency to wallow in mud, that is done mainly to keep cool.
This is detailed in verses 2:173, 5:3, 6:145, and 16:115 of the Qur'an. An exemplary verse is quoted here: "He has only forbidden you dead meat, and blood, and the flesh of swine, and any (food) over which the name of other than Allah has been invoked. But if one is forced by necessity, without willful disobedience, nor transgressing due limits, then Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful."
Is Pork Forbidden to Muslims Only?
The Jews and Christians are also forbidden from eating pork. Here is a quote from the Old Testament to that effect: "And the swine, because it divideth the hoof, yet cheweth not the cud, it is unclean unto you: ye shall not eat of their flesh, nor touch their dead carcase." Deuteronomy 14:8
Many Christians believe that this verse was directed only at the Jews. But Jesus himself says during the Sermon on the Mount; "Think not that I am come to destroy the Law, or the Prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfill." Some Christians say that, after a vision by St. Peter, God cleansed all animals and made them fit and lawful for human consumption. If ALL animals are cleansed by Peter's vision, this includes dogs, cats, vultures, and rats: but you just don't see people getting excited about a cat-meat sandwich like they do over barbecued pork or bacon. Others say that it was Paul who rescinded the law forbidding pork to humans, in order to appease the Romans, who enjoyed the taste of pig-meat. Many excuses have been given, but none are very sound.
Many Far Eastern traditions also discourage the eating of pork. The 3,000 year old Confucian Book of Rites says, "Agentleman does not eat the flesh of pigs and dogs." Although many Chinese are avid eaters of pork today, physicians of ancient China recognized pork-eating as the root of many human ailments. Buddhists, Jains and Hindus usually avoid eating any kind of meat.
Bad effects of pork consumption
Pig's bodies contain many toxins, worms and latent diseases. Although some of these infestations are harbored in other animals, modern veterinarians say that pigs are far more predisposed to these illnesses than other animals. This could be because pigs like to scavenge and will eat any kind of food, including dead insects, worms, rotting carcasses, excreta (including their own), garbage, and other pigs.
Influenza (flu) is one of the most famous illnesses which pigs share with humans. This illness is harbored in the lungs of pigs during the summer months and tends to affect pigs and humans in the cooler months. Sausage contains bits of pigs' lungs, so those who eat pork sausage tend to suffer more during epidemics of influenza. Pig meat contains excessive quantities of histamine and imidazole compounds, which can lead to itching and inflammation; growth hormone, which promotes inflammation and growth; sulphur-containing mesenchymal mucus, which leads to swelling and deposits of mucus in tendons and cartilage, resulting in arthritis, rheumatism, etc.
Sulfur helps cause firm human tendons and ligaments to be replaced by the pig's soft mesenchymal tissues, and degeneration of human cartilage. Eating pork can also lead to gallstones and obesity, probably due to its high cholesterol and saturated fat content. The pig is the main carrier of the taenia solium worm, which is found it its flesh. These tapeworms are found in human intestines with greater frequency in nations where pigs are eaten. This type of tapeworm can pass through the intestines and affect many other organs, and is incurable once it reaches beyond a certain stage. One in six people in the US and Canada has trichinosis from eating trichina worms which are found in pork. Many people have no symptoms to warn them of this, and when they do, they resemble symptoms of many other illnesses. These worms are not noticed during meat inspections, nor are they killed by salting or smoking. Few people cook the meat long enough to kill the trichinae. The rat (another scavenger) also harbors this disease. There are dozens of other worms, germs, diseases and bacteria which are commonly found in pigs, many of which are specific to the pig, or found in greater frequency in pigs.
Pigs are biologically similar to humans, and their meat is said to taste similar to human flesh. Pigs have been used for dissection in biology labs due to the similarity between their organs and human organs. People with insulin-dependent diabetes usually inject themselves with pig insulin.
Kindness to animals
Every creature was created by Allah for a purpose. The Prophet always encouraged being kind to animals. Although we should not eat the meat of the pig, it doesn't mean that we should hate pigs. We should show them the same kindness as any other animal, and not abuse or torture them. Pigs score high on tests devised to determine animal intelligence; in other words, they are very smart. It used to be that Europe people believed that pork would taste better if the pigs were kept in a state of filth, but this is not the natural inclination of the pig. When left to their own devices, it is said that pigs do not like to soil their sleeping quarters. As for their tendency to wallow in mud, that is done mainly to keep cool.
Keputusan Liga Super
Berikut adalah keputusan penuh perlawanan liga super 28 mei 2011. Perlawanan liga super melibatkan 14 pasukan.
Harimau Muda (2) - (0) Sabah
Kelantan (1) - (0) Pahang
Selangor (2) - (0) Negeri Sembilan
Terengganu (0) - (1) Kedah
Perak (2) - (0) T-Team
Kuala Lumpur (1) - (2) Johor FC
Perlis (0) - (1) Felda United
Tags: keputusan liga super 28.5.2011, keputusan liga super 2011, kedudukan terkini liga super malaysia 2011, keputusan terengganu vs kedah, keputusan kelantan vs pahang liga super 28 mei 2011
Harimau Muda (2) - (0) Sabah
Kelantan (1) - (0) Pahang
Selangor (2) - (0) Negeri Sembilan
Terengganu (0) - (1) Kedah
Perak (2) - (0) T-Team
Kuala Lumpur (1) - (2) Johor FC
Perlis (0) - (1) Felda United
Tags: keputusan liga super 28.5.2011, keputusan liga super 2011, kedudukan terkini liga super malaysia 2011, keputusan terengganu vs kedah, keputusan kelantan vs pahang liga super 28 mei 2011
Thursday, 26 May 2011
History of the cristmas
Dies Natalis Solis Invicti means "the birthday of the unconquered sun".
Modern scholars have argued that the festival was placed on the date of the solstice because this was on this day that the Sun reversed its southward retreat and proved itself to be "unconquered".[citation needed] Some early Christian writers connected the rebirth of the sun to the birth of Jesus.[9] "O, how wonderfully acted Providence that on that day on which that Sun was born...Christ should be born", Cyprian wrote.[9] John Chrysostom also commented on the connection: "They call it the 'Birthday of the Unconquered'. Who indeed is so unconquered as Our Lord . . .?"[9]
Although Dies Natalis Solis Invicti has been the subject of a great deal of scholarly speculation,.[citation needed] the only ancient source for it is a single mention in the Chronography of 354, and modern Sol scholar Steven Hijmans argues that there is no evidence that the celebration precedes that of Christmas:[20] "[W]hile the winter solstice on or around the 25th of December was well established in the Roman imperial calendar, there is no evidence that a religious celebration of Sol on that day antedated the celebration of Christmas, and none that indicates that Aurelian had a hand in its institution."[20]
Winter festivalsMain article: List of winter festivals
A winter festival was the most popular festival of the year in many cultures. Reasons included the fact that less agricultural work needs to be done during the winter, as well as an expectation of better weather as spring approached.[66] Modern Christmas customs include: gift-giving and merrymaking from Roman Saturnalia; greenery, lights, and charity from the Roman New Year; and Yule logs and various foods from Germanic feasts.[67] Pagan Scandinavia celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period.[citation needed] As Northern Europe was the last part to Christianize, its pagan traditions had a major influence on Christmas.[citation needed] Scandinavians still call Christmas Jul. In English, the word Yule is synonymous with Christmas,[68] a usage first recorded in 900.
Christian feastThe New Testament does not give a date for the birth of Jesus.[9][69] Around AD 200, Clement of Alexandria wrote that a group in Egypt celebrated the nativity on 25 Pashons.[9] This corresponds to May 20.[70] Tertullian (d. 220) does not mention Christmas as a major feast day in the Church of Roman Africa.[9] However, in Chronographai, a reference work published in 221, Sextus Julius Africanus suggested that Jesus was conceived on the spring equinox, popularizing the idea that Christ was born on December 25.[71][72] The equinox was March 25 on the Roman calendar, so this implied a birth in December.[73] De Pascha Computus, a calendar of feasts produced in 243, gives March 28 as the date of the nativity.[74] In 245, the theologian Origen of Alexandria stated that, "only sinners (like Pharaoh and Herod)" celebrated their birthdays.[75] In 303, Christian writer Arnobius ridiculed the idea of celebrating the birthdays of gods. However, since Christmas does not celebrate Christ's birth "as God" but "as man", this is not evidence against Christmas being a feast at this time.[9] Moreover, the fact that the innovation rejecting Donatist Church of North Africa celebrated Christmas suggests that the feast had been established before the living memory of those who began that Church in 311.
Feast establishedThe earliest known reference to the date of the nativity as December 25 is found in the Chronography of 354, an illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome.[76] In the East, early Christians celebrated the birth of Christ as part of Epiphany (January 6), although this festival emphasized celebration of the baptism of Jesus.[77]
Christmas was promoted in the Christian East as part of the revival of Catholicism following the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced to Constantinople in 379, and to Antioch in about 380. The feast disappeared after Gregory of Nazianzus resigned as bishop in 381, although it was reintroduced by John Chrysostom in about 400.[9]
The Examination and Trial of Father Christmas, (1686), published shortly after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England.Middle AgesIn the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in the west focused on the visit of the magi. But the Medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent.[78] In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.[78] Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.[78]
The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. King Edmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.
By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten.[78] The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form.[78] "Misrule"—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day, and there was special Christmas ale.[78]
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporated ivy, holly, and other evergreens.[79] Christmas gift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord.[79] The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games.[80] It was during the Reformation in 16th–17th century Europe, that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.[55]
Reformation into the 19th century
Ebenezer Scrooge and the Ghost of Christmas Present. From Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol, 1843Following the Protestant Reformation, groups such as the Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of popery" or the "rags of the Beast."[81] The Catholic Church responded by promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old style Christmas generosity.[80] Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I during the English Civil War, England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.[81] Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans.[81] The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", and carol singing.[82] The Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 ended the ban, but many clergymen still disapproved of Christmas celebration. In Scotland, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland also discouraged observance of Christmas. James VI commanded its celebration in 1618, however attendance at church was scant.[83]
In Colonial America, the Puritans of New England shared radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas. Celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681. The ban by the Pilgrims was revoked in 1681 by English governor Sir Edmund Andros, however it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.[84] At the same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed the holiday freely. Pennsylvania German Settlers, pre-eminently the Moravian settlers of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Lititz in Pennsylvania and the Wachovia Settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes.[85] Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom.[86] George Washington attacked Hessian (German) mercenaries on Christmas during the Battle of Trenton in 1777, Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time.
By the 1820s, sectarian tension had eased in Britain and writers, including William Winstanly, began to worry that Christmas was dying out. These writers imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration, and efforts were made to revive the holiday. In 1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol, that helped revive the 'spirit' of Christmas and seasonal merriment.[87][88] Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.[89] Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centered festival of generosity, in contrast to the community-based and church-centered observations, the observance of which had dwindled during the late 18th century and early 19th century.[90] Superimposing his secular vision of the holiday, Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.[91] A prominent phrase from the tale, 'Merry Christmas', was popularized following the appearance of the story.[92] The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with 'Bah! Humbug!' dismissive of the festive spirit.[93] In 1843, the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Sir Henry Cole.[94] The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William B. Sandys Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of 'The First Noel', 'I Saw Three Ships', 'Hark the Herald Angels Sing' and 'God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen', popularized in Dickens' A Christmas Carol.
The Queen's Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, 1848. Republished in Godey's Lady's Book, Philadelphia December, 1850.In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century following the personal union with the Kingdom of Hanover, by Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Queen to King George III. In 1832 a young Queen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with lights, ornaments, and presents placed round it.[95] After her marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.[42] An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, created a sensation when it was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of this image was published in the United States in 1850.[43][96] By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.[43]
In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several short stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon and "Old Christmas". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying in Aston Hall, Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned,[97] and he used the tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.[80] In 1822, Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line: Twas the Night Before Christmas).[98] The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance.[99] This also started the cultural conflict of the holiday's spiritualism and its commercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book "The First Christmas in New England", Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree.[100] While the celebration of Christmas wasn't yet customary in some regions in the U.S., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England" in 1856. "The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it more so".[101] In Reading, Pennsylvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas — threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior's birth".[101] The First Congregational Church of Rockford, Illinois, 'although of genuine Puritan stock', was 'preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee', a news correspondent reported in 1864.[101] By 1860, fourteen states including several from New England had adopted Christmas as a legal holiday.[102] In 1870, Christmas was formally declared a United States Federal holiday, signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant.[102] Subsequently, in 1875, Louis Prang introduced the Christmas card to Americans. He has been called the "father of the American Christmas card
Modern scholars have argued that the festival was placed on the date of the solstice because this was on this day that the Sun reversed its southward retreat and proved itself to be "unconquered".[citation needed] Some early Christian writers connected the rebirth of the sun to the birth of Jesus.[9] "O, how wonderfully acted Providence that on that day on which that Sun was born...Christ should be born", Cyprian wrote.[9] John Chrysostom also commented on the connection: "They call it the 'Birthday of the Unconquered'. Who indeed is so unconquered as Our Lord . . .?"[9]
Although Dies Natalis Solis Invicti has been the subject of a great deal of scholarly speculation,.[citation needed] the only ancient source for it is a single mention in the Chronography of 354, and modern Sol scholar Steven Hijmans argues that there is no evidence that the celebration precedes that of Christmas:[20] "[W]hile the winter solstice on or around the 25th of December was well established in the Roman imperial calendar, there is no evidence that a religious celebration of Sol on that day antedated the celebration of Christmas, and none that indicates that Aurelian had a hand in its institution."[20]
Winter festivalsMain article: List of winter festivals
A winter festival was the most popular festival of the year in many cultures. Reasons included the fact that less agricultural work needs to be done during the winter, as well as an expectation of better weather as spring approached.[66] Modern Christmas customs include: gift-giving and merrymaking from Roman Saturnalia; greenery, lights, and charity from the Roman New Year; and Yule logs and various foods from Germanic feasts.[67] Pagan Scandinavia celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period.[citation needed] As Northern Europe was the last part to Christianize, its pagan traditions had a major influence on Christmas.[citation needed] Scandinavians still call Christmas Jul. In English, the word Yule is synonymous with Christmas,[68] a usage first recorded in 900.
Christian feastThe New Testament does not give a date for the birth of Jesus.[9][69] Around AD 200, Clement of Alexandria wrote that a group in Egypt celebrated the nativity on 25 Pashons.[9] This corresponds to May 20.[70] Tertullian (d. 220) does not mention Christmas as a major feast day in the Church of Roman Africa.[9] However, in Chronographai, a reference work published in 221, Sextus Julius Africanus suggested that Jesus was conceived on the spring equinox, popularizing the idea that Christ was born on December 25.[71][72] The equinox was March 25 on the Roman calendar, so this implied a birth in December.[73] De Pascha Computus, a calendar of feasts produced in 243, gives March 28 as the date of the nativity.[74] In 245, the theologian Origen of Alexandria stated that, "only sinners (like Pharaoh and Herod)" celebrated their birthdays.[75] In 303, Christian writer Arnobius ridiculed the idea of celebrating the birthdays of gods. However, since Christmas does not celebrate Christ's birth "as God" but "as man", this is not evidence against Christmas being a feast at this time.[9] Moreover, the fact that the innovation rejecting Donatist Church of North Africa celebrated Christmas suggests that the feast had been established before the living memory of those who began that Church in 311.
Feast establishedThe earliest known reference to the date of the nativity as December 25 is found in the Chronography of 354, an illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome.[76] In the East, early Christians celebrated the birth of Christ as part of Epiphany (January 6), although this festival emphasized celebration of the baptism of Jesus.[77]
Christmas was promoted in the Christian East as part of the revival of Catholicism following the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced to Constantinople in 379, and to Antioch in about 380. The feast disappeared after Gregory of Nazianzus resigned as bishop in 381, although it was reintroduced by John Chrysostom in about 400.[9]
The Examination and Trial of Father Christmas, (1686), published shortly after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England.Middle AgesIn the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in the west focused on the visit of the magi. But the Medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent.[78] In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.[78] Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.[78]
The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. King Edmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.
By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten.[78] The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form.[78] "Misrule"—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day, and there was special Christmas ale.[78]
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporated ivy, holly, and other evergreens.[79] Christmas gift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord.[79] The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games.[80] It was during the Reformation in 16th–17th century Europe, that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.[55]
Reformation into the 19th century
Ebenezer Scrooge and the Ghost of Christmas Present. From Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol, 1843Following the Protestant Reformation, groups such as the Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of popery" or the "rags of the Beast."[81] The Catholic Church responded by promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old style Christmas generosity.[80] Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I during the English Civil War, England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.[81] Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans.[81] The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", and carol singing.[82] The Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 ended the ban, but many clergymen still disapproved of Christmas celebration. In Scotland, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland also discouraged observance of Christmas. James VI commanded its celebration in 1618, however attendance at church was scant.[83]
In Colonial America, the Puritans of New England shared radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas. Celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681. The ban by the Pilgrims was revoked in 1681 by English governor Sir Edmund Andros, however it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.[84] At the same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed the holiday freely. Pennsylvania German Settlers, pre-eminently the Moravian settlers of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Lititz in Pennsylvania and the Wachovia Settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes.[85] Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom.[86] George Washington attacked Hessian (German) mercenaries on Christmas during the Battle of Trenton in 1777, Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time.
By the 1820s, sectarian tension had eased in Britain and writers, including William Winstanly, began to worry that Christmas was dying out. These writers imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration, and efforts were made to revive the holiday. In 1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol, that helped revive the 'spirit' of Christmas and seasonal merriment.[87][88] Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.[89] Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centered festival of generosity, in contrast to the community-based and church-centered observations, the observance of which had dwindled during the late 18th century and early 19th century.[90] Superimposing his secular vision of the holiday, Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.[91] A prominent phrase from the tale, 'Merry Christmas', was popularized following the appearance of the story.[92] The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with 'Bah! Humbug!' dismissive of the festive spirit.[93] In 1843, the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Sir Henry Cole.[94] The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William B. Sandys Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of 'The First Noel', 'I Saw Three Ships', 'Hark the Herald Angels Sing' and 'God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen', popularized in Dickens' A Christmas Carol.
The Queen's Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, 1848. Republished in Godey's Lady's Book, Philadelphia December, 1850.In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century following the personal union with the Kingdom of Hanover, by Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Queen to King George III. In 1832 a young Queen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with lights, ornaments, and presents placed round it.[95] After her marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.[42] An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, created a sensation when it was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of this image was published in the United States in 1850.[43][96] By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.[43]
In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several short stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon and "Old Christmas". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying in Aston Hall, Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned,[97] and he used the tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.[80] In 1822, Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line: Twas the Night Before Christmas).[98] The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance.[99] This also started the cultural conflict of the holiday's spiritualism and its commercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book "The First Christmas in New England", Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree.[100] While the celebration of Christmas wasn't yet customary in some regions in the U.S., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England" in 1856. "The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it more so".[101] In Reading, Pennsylvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas — threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior's birth".[101] The First Congregational Church of Rockford, Illinois, 'although of genuine Puritan stock', was 'preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee', a news correspondent reported in 1864.[101] By 1860, fourteen states including several from New England had adopted Christmas as a legal holiday.[102] In 1870, Christmas was formally declared a United States Federal holiday, signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant.[102] Subsequently, in 1875, Louis Prang introduced the Christmas card to Americans. He has been called the "father of the American Christmas card
Tuesday, 17 May 2011
History of squash
Squash developed from at least five other sports involving racquets, gloves, and balls having roots in the early 12th century in France.[1] It is stated that “Squash, with its element of hitting balls against walls, was for entertainment. For example, boys and girls slapped their balls in narrow alleys and streets”.[1] Religious institutions in France, such as monasteries, developed a similar game. Monks used gloves that were webbed to hit balls against a fishing net strung across the middle of the courtyards of the monasteries.[1] This developed the early “racquets” used in tennis and squash. Then in late fifteenth century, tennis was developed and spread to other European nations. The next major development of squash took place in England where the game of "racquets" was developed in Fleet Prison, a debtor’s prison.[1] Similar to tennis, it involved racquets and balls, but instead of hitting over a net as in tennis, players hit a non-squeezable ball against walls. A variation of rackets that also led to the formation of squash was called fives, similar to handball. Fives was essentially the game of racquets, without racquets. (The ball was hit with the hand.)[1] It is played against a wall or walls.
Old and new styled Squash racquetsThese games gained popularity in schools, and squash itself was developed at Harrow School in England.[2] The first courts built at this school were rather dangerous because they were near water pipes, buttresses, chimneys, and ledges. The school soon built four outside courts. Natural rubber was material of choice for the ball. Students modified their racquets to have a smaller reach to play in these cramped conditions.[1]
The racquets have changed in much the same way as those used in tennis. Squash rackets used to be made out of laminated timber.[3] In the 1980s, construction shifted to lighter, carbon-based materials (such as graphite) with small additions of such components as Kevlar, boron and titanium. Natural "gut" strings were replaced with synthetic strings.[3]
In the 20th century the game increased in popularity with various schools, clubs and even private citizens building squash courts, but with no set dimensions. The first squash court in North America appeared at St. Paul's School in New Hampshire in 1884. In 1904 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the earliest national association of squash in the world was formed as the United States Squash Racquets Association, (USSRA), now known as US-Squash. In April 1907 the Tennis, Rackets & Fives Association set up a sub committee to set standards for squash. Then the sport soon formed, combining the three sports together called “Squash”. It was not until 1923 that the Royal Automobile Club hosted a meeting to further discuss the rules and regulations and another five years elapsed before the Squash Rackets Association was formed to set standards for squash in Great Britain.[1]
The sport spread to America and Canada, and eventually around the globe. Players such as F.D. Amr Bey of Egypt dominated the courts in the 1930s, Geoff Hunt of Australia dominated the game during the 1960s and 1970s, winning a record eight British Opens at the time. During the 1980s and 1990s Jahangir Khan of Pakistan won the British Open a record of ten times and Jansher Khan of Pakistan won the World Open a record of eight times.[2] No list of squash champions is complete without referencing the legendary Pakistani Hashim Khan, winner of 7 British Open championships, and his son, Sharif Khan, winner of 12 North American Open titles. Hashim is considered one of the best athletes of all times and is the patriarch of a sports dynasty, consisting of himself, his brother, Azam, nephews Mohibullah and Gul, sons Sharif, Gulmast, Aziz, Liaquat Ali, and Salim Khan - all of whom are squash champions in their own right. Jansher Khan, although sharing the same last name, is not considered part of the "Khan Dynasty" of squash as he is not related to Hashim Khan.
Old and new styled Squash racquetsThese games gained popularity in schools, and squash itself was developed at Harrow School in England.[2] The first courts built at this school were rather dangerous because they were near water pipes, buttresses, chimneys, and ledges. The school soon built four outside courts. Natural rubber was material of choice for the ball. Students modified their racquets to have a smaller reach to play in these cramped conditions.[1]
The racquets have changed in much the same way as those used in tennis. Squash rackets used to be made out of laminated timber.[3] In the 1980s, construction shifted to lighter, carbon-based materials (such as graphite) with small additions of such components as Kevlar, boron and titanium. Natural "gut" strings were replaced with synthetic strings.[3]
In the 20th century the game increased in popularity with various schools, clubs and even private citizens building squash courts, but with no set dimensions. The first squash court in North America appeared at St. Paul's School in New Hampshire in 1884. In 1904 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the earliest national association of squash in the world was formed as the United States Squash Racquets Association, (USSRA), now known as US-Squash. In April 1907 the Tennis, Rackets & Fives Association set up a sub committee to set standards for squash. Then the sport soon formed, combining the three sports together called “Squash”. It was not until 1923 that the Royal Automobile Club hosted a meeting to further discuss the rules and regulations and another five years elapsed before the Squash Rackets Association was formed to set standards for squash in Great Britain.[1]
The sport spread to America and Canada, and eventually around the globe. Players such as F.D. Amr Bey of Egypt dominated the courts in the 1930s, Geoff Hunt of Australia dominated the game during the 1960s and 1970s, winning a record eight British Opens at the time. During the 1980s and 1990s Jahangir Khan of Pakistan won the British Open a record of ten times and Jansher Khan of Pakistan won the World Open a record of eight times.[2] No list of squash champions is complete without referencing the legendary Pakistani Hashim Khan, winner of 7 British Open championships, and his son, Sharif Khan, winner of 12 North American Open titles. Hashim is considered one of the best athletes of all times and is the patriarch of a sports dynasty, consisting of himself, his brother, Azam, nephews Mohibullah and Gul, sons Sharif, Gulmast, Aziz, Liaquat Ali, and Salim Khan - all of whom are squash champions in their own right. Jansher Khan, although sharing the same last name, is not considered part of the "Khan Dynasty" of squash as he is not related to Hashim Khan.
History of yoghurt
There is evidence of cultured milk products in cultures as far back as 2000 BC. The earliest yoghurt was probably fermented spontaneously, perhaps by wild bacteria residing inside goatskin bags used for transportation. In the early 1800s, men used yogurt to clean their goats and sheep. Many women also used yogurt to wash their bodies and hair. Yogurt was the best known cleaning agent at the time[citation needed].
In the records of the ancient culture of Indo-Iranians (Iran and India), yogurt is mentioned by 500 BC. In this record the combination of yogurt and honey is called "the food of the gods".[6] Persian traditions hold that "Abraham owed his fecundity and longevity to the regular ingestion of yogurt".[7]
The oldest writings mentioning yoghurt are attributed to Pliny the Elder, who remarked that certain nomadic tribes knew how "to thicken the milk into a substance with an agreeable acidity".[8] The use of yoghurt by medieval Turks is recorded in the books Diwan Lughat al-Turk by Mahmud Kashgari and Kutadgu Bilig by Yusuf Has Hajib written in the 11th century.[9][10] Both texts mention the word "yoghurt" in different sections and describe its use by nomadic Turks.[9][10] An early account of a European encounter with yoghurt occurs in French clinical history: Francis I suffered from a severe diarrhoea which no French doctor could cure. His ally Suleiman the Magnificent sent a doctor, who allegedly cured the patient with yoghurt.[11][12] Being grateful, the French king spread around the information about the food which had cured him.
Raita is a condiment made with yoghurt and popular in India and Pakistan.Until the 1900s, yoghurt was a staple in diets of people in the Russian Empire (and especially Central Asia and the Caucasus), Western Asia, South Eastern Europe/Balkans, Central Europe, and India. Stamen Grigorov (1878–1945), a Bulgarian student of medicine in Geneva, first examined the microflora of the Bulgarian yoghurt. In 1905, he described it as consisting of a spherical and a rod-like lactic acid bacteria. In 1907 the rod-like bacteria was called Lactobacillus bulgaricus (now Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus). The Russian Nobel laureate biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, from the Institut Pasteur in Paris, was influenced by Grigorov's work and hypothesised that regular consumption of yoghurt was responsible for the unusually long lifespans of Bulgarian peasants. Believing Lactobacillus to be essential for good health, Mechnikov worked to popularise yoghurt as a foodstuff throughout Europe.
Isaac Carasso industrialised the production of yoghurt. In 1919, Carasso, who was from Ottoman Salonika, started a small yoghurt business in Barcelona, Spain, and named the business Danone ("little Daniel") after his son. The brand later expanded to the United States under an Americanised version of the name: Dannon.
Tarator is a cold soup made of yoghurt and cucumber (dill, garlic, walnuts and sunflower oil are sometimes added) and is popular in Bulgaria.Yoghurt with added fruit jam was patented in 1933 by the Radlická Mlékárna dairy in Prague.[13] It was introduced to the United States in 1947, by Dannon.
Yoghurt was first introduced to the United States in the first decade of the twentieth century, influenced by Élie Metchnikoff's The Prolongation of Life; Optimistic Studies (1908); it was available in tablet form for those with digestive intolerance and for home culturing.[14] It was popularised by John Harvey Kellogg at the Battle Creek Sanitarium, where it was used both orally and in enemas,[15] and later by Armenian immigrants Sarkis and Rose Colombosian, who started "Colombo and Sons Creamery" in Andover, Massachusetts in 1929.[16][17] Colombo Yoghurt was originally delivered around New England in a horse-drawn wagon inscribed with the Armenian word "madzoon" which was later changed to "yogurt", the Turkish name of the product, as Turkish was the lingua franca between immigrants of the various Near Eastern ethnicities[citation needed] who were the main consumers at that time. Yoghurt's popularity in the United States was enhanced in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was presented as a health food. By the late 20th century yoghurt had become a common American food item and Colombo Yogurt was sold in 1993 to General Mills, which discontinued the brand in 2010.
In the records of the ancient culture of Indo-Iranians (Iran and India), yogurt is mentioned by 500 BC. In this record the combination of yogurt and honey is called "the food of the gods".[6] Persian traditions hold that "Abraham owed his fecundity and longevity to the regular ingestion of yogurt".[7]
The oldest writings mentioning yoghurt are attributed to Pliny the Elder, who remarked that certain nomadic tribes knew how "to thicken the milk into a substance with an agreeable acidity".[8] The use of yoghurt by medieval Turks is recorded in the books Diwan Lughat al-Turk by Mahmud Kashgari and Kutadgu Bilig by Yusuf Has Hajib written in the 11th century.[9][10] Both texts mention the word "yoghurt" in different sections and describe its use by nomadic Turks.[9][10] An early account of a European encounter with yoghurt occurs in French clinical history: Francis I suffered from a severe diarrhoea which no French doctor could cure. His ally Suleiman the Magnificent sent a doctor, who allegedly cured the patient with yoghurt.[11][12] Being grateful, the French king spread around the information about the food which had cured him.
Raita is a condiment made with yoghurt and popular in India and Pakistan.Until the 1900s, yoghurt was a staple in diets of people in the Russian Empire (and especially Central Asia and the Caucasus), Western Asia, South Eastern Europe/Balkans, Central Europe, and India. Stamen Grigorov (1878–1945), a Bulgarian student of medicine in Geneva, first examined the microflora of the Bulgarian yoghurt. In 1905, he described it as consisting of a spherical and a rod-like lactic acid bacteria. In 1907 the rod-like bacteria was called Lactobacillus bulgaricus (now Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus). The Russian Nobel laureate biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, from the Institut Pasteur in Paris, was influenced by Grigorov's work and hypothesised that regular consumption of yoghurt was responsible for the unusually long lifespans of Bulgarian peasants. Believing Lactobacillus to be essential for good health, Mechnikov worked to popularise yoghurt as a foodstuff throughout Europe.
Isaac Carasso industrialised the production of yoghurt. In 1919, Carasso, who was from Ottoman Salonika, started a small yoghurt business in Barcelona, Spain, and named the business Danone ("little Daniel") after his son. The brand later expanded to the United States under an Americanised version of the name: Dannon.
Tarator is a cold soup made of yoghurt and cucumber (dill, garlic, walnuts and sunflower oil are sometimes added) and is popular in Bulgaria.Yoghurt with added fruit jam was patented in 1933 by the Radlická Mlékárna dairy in Prague.[13] It was introduced to the United States in 1947, by Dannon.
Yoghurt was first introduced to the United States in the first decade of the twentieth century, influenced by Élie Metchnikoff's The Prolongation of Life; Optimistic Studies (1908); it was available in tablet form for those with digestive intolerance and for home culturing.[14] It was popularised by John Harvey Kellogg at the Battle Creek Sanitarium, where it was used both orally and in enemas,[15] and later by Armenian immigrants Sarkis and Rose Colombosian, who started "Colombo and Sons Creamery" in Andover, Massachusetts in 1929.[16][17] Colombo Yoghurt was originally delivered around New England in a horse-drawn wagon inscribed with the Armenian word "madzoon" which was later changed to "yogurt", the Turkish name of the product, as Turkish was the lingua franca between immigrants of the various Near Eastern ethnicities[citation needed] who were the main consumers at that time. Yoghurt's popularity in the United States was enhanced in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was presented as a health food. By the late 20th century yoghurt had become a common American food item and Colombo Yogurt was sold in 1993 to General Mills, which discontinued the brand in 2010.
History of taekwondo
The oldest Korean martial art was an amalgamation of unarmed combat styles developed by the three rival Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Silla and Baekje,[4] where young men were trained in unarmed combat techniques to develop strength, speed, and survival skills. The most popular of these techniques was subak, with taekkyeon being the most popular of the segments of subak. Those who demonstrated strong natural aptitude were selected as trainees in the new special warrior corps, called the Hwarang. It was believed that young men with a talent for the liberal arts may have the grace to become competent warriors. These warriors were instructed in academics as well as martial arts, learning philosophy, history, a code of ethics, and equestrian sports. Their military training included an extensive weapons program involving swordsmanship and archery, both on horseback and on foot, as well as lessons in military tactics and unarmed combat using subak. Although subak was a leg-oriented art in Goguryeo, Silla's influence added hand techniques to the practice of subak.
During this time a few select Silla warriors were given training in taekkyeon by the early masters from Koguryo. These warriors then became known as the Hwarang. The Hwarang set up a military academy for the sons of royalty in Silla called Hwarang-do, which means "the way of flowering manhood." The Hwarang studied taekkyeon, history, Confucian philosophy, ethics, Buddhist morality, social skills and military tactics. The guiding principles of the Hwarang warriors were based on Won Gwang's five codes of human conduct and included loyalty, filial duty, trustworthiness, valor and justice. Taekkyeon was spread throughout Korea because the Hwarang traveled all around the peninsula to learn about the other regions and people.
In spite of Korea's rich history of ancient and traditional martial arts, Korean martial arts faded into obscurity during the Joseon Dynasty. Korean society became highly centralized under Korean Confucianism and martial arts were poorly regarded in a society whose ideals were epitomized by its scholar-kings.[5] Formal practices of traditional martial arts such as subak and taekkyeon were reserved for sanctioned military uses. Civilian folk practice of taekkyeon persisted into the 19thth century.[4]
During the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910–1945), all facets of ethnic Korean identity were banned or suppressed.[6][7] Traditional Korean martial arts such as taekkyeon or subak were banned during this time.[8] During the occupation, Koreans who were able to study and receive rankings in Japan were exposed to Japanese martial arts.[9] Others were exposed to martial arts in China and Manchuria.[10][11][12]
When the occupation ended in 1945, Korean martial arts schools (kwans) began to open in Korea under various influences.[10][13] There are differing views on the origins of the arts taught in these schools. Some believe that they taught martial arts that were based primarily upon the traditional Korean martial arts taekkyon and subak,[14][15][16][17][18][19][20] or that taekwondo was derived from native Korean martial arts with influences from neighboring countries.[10][21][22][23][24][25] Still others believe that these schools taught arts that were almost entirely based upon karate.[26][27][28][28][29]
In 1952, at the height of the Korean War, there was a martial arts exhibition in which the kwans displayed their skills. In one demonstration, Nam Tae Hi smashed 13 roof tiles with a punch. Following this demonstration, South Korean President Syngman Rhee instructed Choi Hong Hi to introduce the martial arts to the Korean army.[30] By the mid-1950s, nine kwans had emerged. Syngman Rhee ordered that the various schools unify under a single system. The name "taekwondo" was submitted by either Choi Hong Hi (of the Oh Do Kwan) or Song Duk Son (of the Chung Do Kwan), and was accepted on April 11, 1955. As it stands today, the nine kwans are the founders of taekwondo,[31] though not all the kwans used the name. The Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA) was formed in 1959/1961 to facilitate the unification.[9][16][32][33][34]
In the early 1960s, Taekwondo made its début worldwide with assignment of the original masters of taekwondo to various countries. Standardization efforts in South Korea stalled, as the kwans continued to teach differing styles. Another request from the Korean government for unification resulted in the formation of the Korea Tae Soo Do Association, which changed its name back to the Korea Taekwondo Association in 1965 following a change of leadership. The International Taekwon-Do Federation was founded in 1966, followed by World Taekwondo Federation in 1973.
Since 2000, Taekwondo has been one of only two Asian martial arts (the other being judo) that are included in the Olympic Games; it became a demonstration event starting with the 1988 games in Seoul, and became an official medal event starting with the 2000 games in Sydney. In 2010, Taekwondo was accepted as a Commonwealth Games sport.[35]
One source has estimated that as of 2009, Taekwondo was practiced in 123 countries, with over 30 million practitioners and 3 million individuals with black belts throughout the world.[36] The South Korean government in the same year published an estimate of 70 million practitioners in 190 countries.
During this time a few select Silla warriors were given training in taekkyeon by the early masters from Koguryo. These warriors then became known as the Hwarang. The Hwarang set up a military academy for the sons of royalty in Silla called Hwarang-do, which means "the way of flowering manhood." The Hwarang studied taekkyeon, history, Confucian philosophy, ethics, Buddhist morality, social skills and military tactics. The guiding principles of the Hwarang warriors were based on Won Gwang's five codes of human conduct and included loyalty, filial duty, trustworthiness, valor and justice. Taekkyeon was spread throughout Korea because the Hwarang traveled all around the peninsula to learn about the other regions and people.
In spite of Korea's rich history of ancient and traditional martial arts, Korean martial arts faded into obscurity during the Joseon Dynasty. Korean society became highly centralized under Korean Confucianism and martial arts were poorly regarded in a society whose ideals were epitomized by its scholar-kings.[5] Formal practices of traditional martial arts such as subak and taekkyeon were reserved for sanctioned military uses. Civilian folk practice of taekkyeon persisted into the 19thth century.[4]
During the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910–1945), all facets of ethnic Korean identity were banned or suppressed.[6][7] Traditional Korean martial arts such as taekkyeon or subak were banned during this time.[8] During the occupation, Koreans who were able to study and receive rankings in Japan were exposed to Japanese martial arts.[9] Others were exposed to martial arts in China and Manchuria.[10][11][12]
When the occupation ended in 1945, Korean martial arts schools (kwans) began to open in Korea under various influences.[10][13] There are differing views on the origins of the arts taught in these schools. Some believe that they taught martial arts that were based primarily upon the traditional Korean martial arts taekkyon and subak,[14][15][16][17][18][19][20] or that taekwondo was derived from native Korean martial arts with influences from neighboring countries.[10][21][22][23][24][25] Still others believe that these schools taught arts that were almost entirely based upon karate.[26][27][28][28][29]
In 1952, at the height of the Korean War, there was a martial arts exhibition in which the kwans displayed their skills. In one demonstration, Nam Tae Hi smashed 13 roof tiles with a punch. Following this demonstration, South Korean President Syngman Rhee instructed Choi Hong Hi to introduce the martial arts to the Korean army.[30] By the mid-1950s, nine kwans had emerged. Syngman Rhee ordered that the various schools unify under a single system. The name "taekwondo" was submitted by either Choi Hong Hi (of the Oh Do Kwan) or Song Duk Son (of the Chung Do Kwan), and was accepted on April 11, 1955. As it stands today, the nine kwans are the founders of taekwondo,[31] though not all the kwans used the name. The Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA) was formed in 1959/1961 to facilitate the unification.[9][16][32][33][34]
In the early 1960s, Taekwondo made its début worldwide with assignment of the original masters of taekwondo to various countries. Standardization efforts in South Korea stalled, as the kwans continued to teach differing styles. Another request from the Korean government for unification resulted in the formation of the Korea Tae Soo Do Association, which changed its name back to the Korea Taekwondo Association in 1965 following a change of leadership. The International Taekwon-Do Federation was founded in 1966, followed by World Taekwondo Federation in 1973.
Since 2000, Taekwondo has been one of only two Asian martial arts (the other being judo) that are included in the Olympic Games; it became a demonstration event starting with the 1988 games in Seoul, and became an official medal event starting with the 2000 games in Sydney. In 2010, Taekwondo was accepted as a Commonwealth Games sport.[35]
One source has estimated that as of 2009, Taekwondo was practiced in 123 countries, with over 30 million practitioners and 3 million individuals with black belts throughout the world.[36] The South Korean government in the same year published an estimate of 70 million practitioners in 190 countries.
history of ice cream
In the Persian Empire, people would pour grape juice concentrate over snow - in a bowl - and eat this as a treat. In particular this was consumed when the weather was hot. Either snow would be saved in the cool-keeping underground chambers known as "yakhchal" or taken from fresh snow that may still have remained at the top of the mountains by the summer capital - Hagmatana, Ecbatana or Hamedan of today. In 400 BC, the Persians went further and invented a special chilled food, made of rose water and vermicelli which was served to royalty during summers.[2] The ice was mixed with saffron, fruits, and various other flavours.
Ancient civilizations have served ice for cold foods for thousands of years. The BBC reports that a frozen mixture of milk and rice was used in China around 200 BC.[3] The Roman Emperor Nero (37–68) had ice brought from the mountains and combined with fruit toppings. These were some early chilled delicacies.[4]
Arabs were the first to use milk as a major ingredient in its production, sweeten the ice cream with sugar rather than fruit juices, as well as perfect ways for its commercial production. As early as the 10th century, ice cream was widespread amongst many of the Arab world's major cities, such as Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo. Their version of ice cream was produced from milk or cream and often some yoghurt similar to Ancient Greek recipes, flavoured with rosewater as well as dried fruits and nuts. It is believed that this was based on older Ancient Arab, Mesopotamian, Greek or Roman recipes, which were probably the first and precursors to Persian faloodeh.
In 62 AD, the Roman emperor Nero sent slaves to the Apennine mountains to collect snow to be flavoured with honey and nuts.[5]
Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat asserts in her History of Food, "the Chinese may be credited with inventing a device to make sorbets and ice cream. They poured a mixture of snow and saltpetre over the exteriors of containers filled with syrup, for, in the same way as salt raises the boiling-point of water, it lowers the freezing-point to below zero."[6][7] (Toussaint does not provide historical documentation for this.) Some distorted accounts claim that in the age of Emperor Yingzong, Song Dynasty (960-1279) of China, a poem named "詠冰酪" (literally Ode to the ice cheese) was written by the poet Yang Wanli. Actually, this poem was named "詠酥” (literally Ode to the pastry, 酥 is a kind of food like pastry in the western world) and has nothing to do with ice cream.[8] It has also been claimed that, in the Yuan Dynasty, Kublai Khan enjoyed ice cream and kept it a royal secret until Marco Polo visited China and took the technique of making ice cream to Italy.
Japanese green tea ice cream with anko sauceIn the sixteenth century, the Mughal emperors used relays of horsemen to bring ice from the Hindu Kush to Delhi, where it was used in fruit sorbets.[9]
When Italian duchess Catherine de' Medici married the duc d’Orléans in 1533, she is said to have brought with her Italian chefs who had recipes for flavoured ices or sorbets, and introduced them in France.[10] One hundred years later, Charles I of England was supposedly so impressed by the "frozen snow", he offered his own ice cream maker a lifetime pension in return for keeping the formula secret, so ice cream could be a royal prerogative.[11] There is no historical evidence to support these legends, which first appeared during the 19th century.
The first recipe for flavoured ices in French appears in 1674, in Nicholas Lemery’s Recueil de curiositéz rares et nouvelles de plus admirables effets de la nature.[10] Recipes for sorbetti saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latini's Lo Scalco alla Moderna (The Modern Steward).[10] Recipes for flavoured ices begin to appear in François Massialot's Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits starting with the 1692 edition. Massialot's recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the fine consistency of sugar and snow.[10]
True ice creamIce cream recipes first appear in 18th century England and America. A recipe for ice cream was published in Mrs. Mary Eales's Receipts in London 1718.[12]
To ice CREAM. Take Tin Ice-Pots, fill them with any Sort of Cream you like, either plain or sweeten'd, or Fruit in it; shut your Pots very close; to six Pots you must allow eighteen or twenty Pound of Ice, breaking the Ice very small; there will be some great Pieces, which lay at the Bottom and Top: You must have a Pail, and lay some Straw at the Bottom; then lay in your Ice, and put in amongst it a Pound of Bay-Salt; set in your Pots of Cream, and lay Ice and Salt between every Pot, that they may not touch; but the Ice must lie round them on every Side; lay a good deal of Ice on the Top, cover the Pail with Straw, set it in a Cellar where no Sun or Light comes, it will be froze in four Hours, but it may stand longer; than take it out just as you use it; hold it in your Hand and it will slip out. When you wou'd freeze any Sort of Fruit, either Cherries, Raspberries, Currants, or Strawberries, fill your Tin-Pots with the Fruit, but as hollow as you can; put to them Lemmonade, made with Spring-Water and Lemmon-Juice sweeten'd; put enough in the Pots to make the Fruit hang together, and put them in Ice as you do Cream.
The earliest reference to ice cream given by the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1744, reprinted in a magazine in 1877. 1744 in Pennsylvania Mag. Hist. & Biogr. (1877) I. 126 Among the rarities..was some fine ice cream, which, with the strawberries and milk, eat most deliciously.[13]
The 1751 edition of The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse features a recipe for ice cream. OED gives her recipe: H. GLASSE Art of Cookery (ed. 4) 333 (heading) To make Ice Cream..set it [sc. the cream] into the larger Bason. Fill it with Ice, and a Handful of Salt.[13]
1768 saw the publication of L'Art de Bien Faire les Glaces d'Office by M. Emy, a cookbook devoted entirely to recipes for flavoured ices and ice cream.[10]
Ice cream was introduced to the United States by Quaker colonists who brought their ice cream recipes with them. Confectioners sold ice cream at their shops in New York and other cities during the colonial era. Ben Franklin, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson were known to have regularly eaten and served ice cream. First Lady Dolley Madison is also closely associated with the early history of ice cream in the United States. One respected history of ice cream states that, as the wife of U.S. President James Madison, she served ice cream at her husband's Inaugural Ball in 1813.
Around 1832, Augustus Jackson, an African American confectioner, not only created multiple ice cream recipes, but he also invented a superior technique to manufacture ice cream.[14]
In 1843, Nancy Johnson of Philadelphia was issued the first U.S. patent for a small-scale handcranked ice cream freezer. The invention of the ice cream soda gave Americans a new treat, adding to ice cream's popularity. This cold treat was probably invented by Robert Green in 1874, although there is no conclusive evidence to prove his claim.
Ice cream sundaes with fruit, nuts, and a waferThe ice cream sundae originated in the late 19th century. Several men claimed to have created the first sundae, but there is no conclusive evidence to back up any of their stories. Some sources say that the sundae was invented to circumvent blue laws, which forbade serving sodas on Sunday. Towns claiming to be the birthplace of the sundae include Buffalo, New York; Two Rivers, Wisconsin; Ithaca, New York; and Evanston, Illinois. Both the ice cream cone and banana split became popular in the early 20th century. Several food vendors claimed to have invented the ice cream cone at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, MO.[15] Europeans were eating cones long before 1904.[16][17]
In the UK, ice cream remained an expensive and rare treat, until large quantities of ice began to be imported from Norway and the US in the mid Victorian era. A Swiss-Italian businessman, Carlo Gatti, opened the first ice cream stall outside Charing Cross station in 1851, selling scoops of ice cream in shells for one penny.[18]
George and Davis' Ice Cream Cafe on Little Clarendon Street, Oxford.The history of ice cream in the 20th century is one of great change and increases in availability and popularity. In the United States in the early 20th century, the ice cream soda was a popular treat at the soda shop, the soda fountain, and the ice cream parlor. During American Prohibition, the soda fountain to some extent replaced the outlawed alcohol establishments such as bars and saloons.
Ice cream became popular throughout the world in the second half of the 20th century after cheap refrigeration became common. There was an explosion of ice cream stores and of flavours and types. Vendors often competed on the basis of variety. Howard Johnson's restaurants advertised "a world of 28 flavours." Baskin-Robbins made its 31 flavours ("one for every day of the month") the cornerstone of its marketing strategy. The company now boasts that it has developed over 1000 varieties.
One important development in the 20th century was the introduction of soft ice cream. A chemical research team in Britain (of which a young Margaret Thatcher was a member)[19][20] discovered a method of doubling the amount of air in ice cream, which allowed manufacturers to use less of the actual ingredients, thereby reducing costs. It made possible the soft ice cream machine in which a cone is filled beneath a spigot on order. In the United States, Dairy Queen, Carvel, and Tastee-Freez pioneered in establishing chains of soft-serve ice cream outlets.
Technological innovations such as these have introduced various food additives into ice cream, notably the stabilizing agent gluten,[21] to which some people have an intolerance. Recent awareness of this issue has prompted a number of manufacturers to start producing gluten-free ice cream.[22]
The 1980s saw a return of the older, thicker ice creams being sold as "premium" and "superpremium" varieties under brands such as Ben & Jerry's and Häagen
Ancient civilizations have served ice for cold foods for thousands of years. The BBC reports that a frozen mixture of milk and rice was used in China around 200 BC.[3] The Roman Emperor Nero (37–68) had ice brought from the mountains and combined with fruit toppings. These were some early chilled delicacies.[4]
Arabs were the first to use milk as a major ingredient in its production, sweeten the ice cream with sugar rather than fruit juices, as well as perfect ways for its commercial production. As early as the 10th century, ice cream was widespread amongst many of the Arab world's major cities, such as Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo. Their version of ice cream was produced from milk or cream and often some yoghurt similar to Ancient Greek recipes, flavoured with rosewater as well as dried fruits and nuts. It is believed that this was based on older Ancient Arab, Mesopotamian, Greek or Roman recipes, which were probably the first and precursors to Persian faloodeh.
In 62 AD, the Roman emperor Nero sent slaves to the Apennine mountains to collect snow to be flavoured with honey and nuts.[5]
Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat asserts in her History of Food, "the Chinese may be credited with inventing a device to make sorbets and ice cream. They poured a mixture of snow and saltpetre over the exteriors of containers filled with syrup, for, in the same way as salt raises the boiling-point of water, it lowers the freezing-point to below zero."[6][7] (Toussaint does not provide historical documentation for this.) Some distorted accounts claim that in the age of Emperor Yingzong, Song Dynasty (960-1279) of China, a poem named "詠冰酪" (literally Ode to the ice cheese) was written by the poet Yang Wanli. Actually, this poem was named "詠酥” (literally Ode to the pastry, 酥 is a kind of food like pastry in the western world) and has nothing to do with ice cream.[8] It has also been claimed that, in the Yuan Dynasty, Kublai Khan enjoyed ice cream and kept it a royal secret until Marco Polo visited China and took the technique of making ice cream to Italy.
Japanese green tea ice cream with anko sauceIn the sixteenth century, the Mughal emperors used relays of horsemen to bring ice from the Hindu Kush to Delhi, where it was used in fruit sorbets.[9]
When Italian duchess Catherine de' Medici married the duc d’Orléans in 1533, she is said to have brought with her Italian chefs who had recipes for flavoured ices or sorbets, and introduced them in France.[10] One hundred years later, Charles I of England was supposedly so impressed by the "frozen snow", he offered his own ice cream maker a lifetime pension in return for keeping the formula secret, so ice cream could be a royal prerogative.[11] There is no historical evidence to support these legends, which first appeared during the 19th century.
The first recipe for flavoured ices in French appears in 1674, in Nicholas Lemery’s Recueil de curiositéz rares et nouvelles de plus admirables effets de la nature.[10] Recipes for sorbetti saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latini's Lo Scalco alla Moderna (The Modern Steward).[10] Recipes for flavoured ices begin to appear in François Massialot's Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits starting with the 1692 edition. Massialot's recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the fine consistency of sugar and snow.[10]
True ice creamIce cream recipes first appear in 18th century England and America. A recipe for ice cream was published in Mrs. Mary Eales's Receipts in London 1718.[12]
To ice CREAM. Take Tin Ice-Pots, fill them with any Sort of Cream you like, either plain or sweeten'd, or Fruit in it; shut your Pots very close; to six Pots you must allow eighteen or twenty Pound of Ice, breaking the Ice very small; there will be some great Pieces, which lay at the Bottom and Top: You must have a Pail, and lay some Straw at the Bottom; then lay in your Ice, and put in amongst it a Pound of Bay-Salt; set in your Pots of Cream, and lay Ice and Salt between every Pot, that they may not touch; but the Ice must lie round them on every Side; lay a good deal of Ice on the Top, cover the Pail with Straw, set it in a Cellar where no Sun or Light comes, it will be froze in four Hours, but it may stand longer; than take it out just as you use it; hold it in your Hand and it will slip out. When you wou'd freeze any Sort of Fruit, either Cherries, Raspberries, Currants, or Strawberries, fill your Tin-Pots with the Fruit, but as hollow as you can; put to them Lemmonade, made with Spring-Water and Lemmon-Juice sweeten'd; put enough in the Pots to make the Fruit hang together, and put them in Ice as you do Cream.
The earliest reference to ice cream given by the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1744, reprinted in a magazine in 1877. 1744 in Pennsylvania Mag. Hist. & Biogr. (1877) I. 126 Among the rarities..was some fine ice cream, which, with the strawberries and milk, eat most deliciously.[13]
The 1751 edition of The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse features a recipe for ice cream. OED gives her recipe: H. GLASSE Art of Cookery (ed. 4) 333 (heading) To make Ice Cream..set it [sc. the cream] into the larger Bason. Fill it with Ice, and a Handful of Salt.[13]
1768 saw the publication of L'Art de Bien Faire les Glaces d'Office by M. Emy, a cookbook devoted entirely to recipes for flavoured ices and ice cream.[10]
Ice cream was introduced to the United States by Quaker colonists who brought their ice cream recipes with them. Confectioners sold ice cream at their shops in New York and other cities during the colonial era. Ben Franklin, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson were known to have regularly eaten and served ice cream. First Lady Dolley Madison is also closely associated with the early history of ice cream in the United States. One respected history of ice cream states that, as the wife of U.S. President James Madison, she served ice cream at her husband's Inaugural Ball in 1813.
Around 1832, Augustus Jackson, an African American confectioner, not only created multiple ice cream recipes, but he also invented a superior technique to manufacture ice cream.[14]
In 1843, Nancy Johnson of Philadelphia was issued the first U.S. patent for a small-scale handcranked ice cream freezer. The invention of the ice cream soda gave Americans a new treat, adding to ice cream's popularity. This cold treat was probably invented by Robert Green in 1874, although there is no conclusive evidence to prove his claim.
Ice cream sundaes with fruit, nuts, and a waferThe ice cream sundae originated in the late 19th century. Several men claimed to have created the first sundae, but there is no conclusive evidence to back up any of their stories. Some sources say that the sundae was invented to circumvent blue laws, which forbade serving sodas on Sunday. Towns claiming to be the birthplace of the sundae include Buffalo, New York; Two Rivers, Wisconsin; Ithaca, New York; and Evanston, Illinois. Both the ice cream cone and banana split became popular in the early 20th century. Several food vendors claimed to have invented the ice cream cone at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, MO.[15] Europeans were eating cones long before 1904.[16][17]
In the UK, ice cream remained an expensive and rare treat, until large quantities of ice began to be imported from Norway and the US in the mid Victorian era. A Swiss-Italian businessman, Carlo Gatti, opened the first ice cream stall outside Charing Cross station in 1851, selling scoops of ice cream in shells for one penny.[18]
George and Davis' Ice Cream Cafe on Little Clarendon Street, Oxford.The history of ice cream in the 20th century is one of great change and increases in availability and popularity. In the United States in the early 20th century, the ice cream soda was a popular treat at the soda shop, the soda fountain, and the ice cream parlor. During American Prohibition, the soda fountain to some extent replaced the outlawed alcohol establishments such as bars and saloons.
Ice cream became popular throughout the world in the second half of the 20th century after cheap refrigeration became common. There was an explosion of ice cream stores and of flavours and types. Vendors often competed on the basis of variety. Howard Johnson's restaurants advertised "a world of 28 flavours." Baskin-Robbins made its 31 flavours ("one for every day of the month") the cornerstone of its marketing strategy. The company now boasts that it has developed over 1000 varieties.
One important development in the 20th century was the introduction of soft ice cream. A chemical research team in Britain (of which a young Margaret Thatcher was a member)[19][20] discovered a method of doubling the amount of air in ice cream, which allowed manufacturers to use less of the actual ingredients, thereby reducing costs. It made possible the soft ice cream machine in which a cone is filled beneath a spigot on order. In the United States, Dairy Queen, Carvel, and Tastee-Freez pioneered in establishing chains of soft-serve ice cream outlets.
Technological innovations such as these have introduced various food additives into ice cream, notably the stabilizing agent gluten,[21] to which some people have an intolerance. Recent awareness of this issue has prompted a number of manufacturers to start producing gluten-free ice cream.[22]
The 1980s saw a return of the older, thicker ice creams being sold as "premium" and "superpremium" varieties under brands such as Ben & Jerry's and Häagen
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